COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM
ICD 533 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICLES OF DEVELOPMENT
JAN ASSIGNMENT
RESEARCH PAPER
CIVIL SOCIETIES
&
NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS
TUTOR’S NAME: DR SINDA HUSSEN SINDA
STUDENT’S NAME: NEEMA WELLU NSALLU (ID No 728177).
DSM class (attended in Arusha)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS ---------------------------Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CED-----------------------------Community Economic Development
CSO-----------------------------Civil Society Organization
FBOs----------------------------Faith Based Organizations
GOT----------------------------Government of Tanzania
HIV------------------------------Human Immunodeficiency Virus
MOH----------------------------Ministry of Health
NGOs---------------------------Non Governmental Organization
NUTA --------------------------National Union of Tanzania Workers
PMTCT-------------------------Prevention Of Mother To Child Transmission of HIV
PLWAS------------------------People Living with HIV/AIDS
UK------------------------------United Kingdom
UNRISD-----------------------United National Research Institute for Social Development
RFE-----------------------------Rapid Envelop Funds.
Questions
Selection of topic from the list of topics, the research was conducted on civil society and Non- Government Organization to write an academic paper. The discussion based on the how the Civil Societies and NGO’s influenced the field of CED in developing Countries and developing Regions. The discussion of Civil Societies and NGO’s on how participate and it’s impact on Economic development of regions, the evaluation report of the country of my choice.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper is comprised of the overview of Civil Societies and Non Governmental Organization in the context of analyzing its importance in Community Development Economic Development (CED). The contribution of civil societies towards the Global strategies on Poverty reduction. The paper comprises the Theoretical Literature review, the Empirical Literature Review, Policy review my discussion/ perception and conclusion.
2.0 THEORETICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition of Civil Society
Descriptive, functional and normative definitions, there is diversity in assertion of Civil society arise from its mix of descriptive and normative contents. (Anheier et al, 2001). Civil society as an empirical category becomes a label for the sum of organizations that are generally deferent from the state. The Axel Honneth’s (2000) definition, civil society is that all civil institutions and organizations which are prior to the state (Chandhoke, 2002). The descriptive definition acknowledges the reality of civil society, and sometimes includes organizations that do not necessarily perform the social function that they are supposed to. United Kingdom (UK) defines civil society in practical terms as NGO.s. Culture relativists argue that NGOs imply the principles of voluntary and formal associations. (Kaldor, 2002). Functional definitions of civil society defined civil societies as a set of rules or functions that are different from other societal spaces. (Putman, et al 1999). Social capital is described to community volunteerism selflessness and public or civil spirit, civil implies a Normative Behavior of these organizations altruistic, developmental and democratic. (Laver and Halpern, 2000).
2.2 Global Perception on Civil Society
The 1990’s United Nation saw the development of unprecedented link between Global Civil Society and International conferences. The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) project explored the interactions between civil society and the International system of governance. The project evaluated the impact of various United Nations summits on civil society at local, National and Global levels. Under this project, UNRISD has commissioned research to several countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The results showed that Civil Society viewed by many international organizations as a valuable partner for development and poverty reduction. Thus the UN system encouraged the participation of Civil Society in local, National and Global Conferences. (United Nation Program, 2003)
2.3 United Nations International Conference CSO involvement
Traditionally within the UN system, civil society has been present mainly during operational at national or global level, civil society has gained an advocacy role that shapes in participation in consultations as the legitimate “Voice of unrepresented population” to the UN forum and governmental decisions. Civil Society generally acts as a source of expert information, consultation and as stakeholder of decision – making processes. As the result at the UN level there has been the unprecedented growth of transnational links between civil actions. The advocacy efforts strengthened in the 1970s (Clark, 1991) and evolved during the 1980’s (Clark, 1992) where they were intertwined with participation at major conferences such as UN (Anderson, J. 2000)The international conferences provides Civil Society with the opportunity to participate in Global governance to address global problems.
2.4 Civil Society and the market
The recent development in Global civil society finds the important evidence that there is increase of corporate facets to global civil society. NGOs have been adopting corporate strategies and are currently more open to partnership with businesses, while the business sector is incurring into local and global civil society spaces by means of, for example, social responsibility programmes (Anheier et al. 2003). Furthermore global civil society cannot survive without money and monetary exchange or without the market forces unleashed by globalization (Keane, 2001) with the increasing links between these two spheres the conceptual boundaries useful as idea types become blurred when applied to reality. The UN has taken different approaches to relation with civil society and market forces. The former United Union General Secretary Kofi Annan asserted “When I speak about civil society I don’t mean only Non- Governmental Organization, though they are a very important part of it. I also mean Universities, Foundations, Labor union and Private Corporation” (Zadek, 2004, 6)
2.5 The role of associations, civil society and media in addressing corruption.
Corruption in varying degrees is a global issue. All countries deal with issue in some form, but those that exhibit the political will to alleviate it are reaping rewards in the Global economy (McCord, M. 2001).The private sectors responsibility is to combat corruption. These include corporate governance and business ethics, while media must demand accountability for those who don/t follow the rule. The private sectors can establish fair and transparent practices as the way of doing business Therefore the transparent and accountability should not be the exceptional to private sectors but a rule. The business associations play a key role in serving as information sources for Government, media, and public at large. The Association has access to volumes of information on the affect that corrupt has on society as a whole, as they can use this information to become a resource in Government instead of an adversary.
2.6 Civil Society case study on Economic Development
CED implementation a program to eradicate corruption from the Slovak Republic and private sectors through a clean hands program based upon seminars, advocacy and research. CED analyzed the level of corruption by administering a survey to local entrepreneurs and business leaders. Based on the survey’s results CED organized a series and articles of advocacy programs to educate the business community on negative impacts of corruption. The response of the Government developed and introduced the new policy recommendations in the areas of public procurement and auditing of licenses. CED’s study on the linkages between tax rates, corruption and the growth of the hidden (Informal) economy has caused the political leadership in Solvakia to take another look at how rules and taxes are administered.( Slovak Economic sheet, 2000)
Therefore the role that the civil society/ associations play in fight against corruption is an important one. Association can provide information by creation an inventory of legal barriers and duplicative regulations; they can disseminate this information to Government and the media as well as their members; through their advocacy actions they can create accountability; and they can continue to push for market reforms that will make corruption both unnecessary and undesirable. After all, to reduce corruption, countries must reduce the reasons it occurs in the first place, poverty, lack of transparency and commitment to market reforms. (McCord, M. 2000)
2.7 Faith- Based Organizations as one of civil society
Faith –based organization includes the Churches, synagogues, mosques and other religions organizations. The faith based organizations are of three types, congregations, national networks, which include national denominations, their social service arms for example, Catholic Charities, Lutheran Social Services and networks of related organization (such as YMCA and YWCA and freestanding religious organizations which are incorporated separately from congregations and national networks. Play a greater role in strengthening communities such as building schools, healthy centers and Hospitals, and other social services.( IDR Faith- Based Organizations paper, August 2001)
2.8 Social Services in community Development
The role of faith- based organizations in community development is crucial, is asset building which also covers the centers around housing and community economic development but also includes developmental efforts, such as job training, to prepare residents for more productive lives. Recently, there has greater recognition and value given to the contributions of faith- based organizations (FBOs) in providing Social or Human services. FBO have been particularly prominent in providing food, clothing and shelter to people in need. (Thompson, I. 2001) Faith- based organization have also face some challenges such as lack of skills, knowledge and time required to develop successfully community development projects.
Therefore Faith- based organizations are engaged in a wide variety of activities beyond worship, most of which provide services and immediate benefits to needy individuals and families. More than half of all congregations participate. (Wolbert (1997). The approach they take most frequently is to support with donations and volunteer labor services delivery conducted by other types of organization (Wolbert (1997)
3.0 EMPERICAL THEORETICAL REVIEW
3.1 Civil Society and NGOs in Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania has an Act to provide registration of the Non- Governmental Organization. The Act also provides views on the regular NGOs activities, financial matters and other related matters. The Act created by the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania. The Act may be cited as the Non- Governmental Organization Act 2002 and shall into operation on such date as the Minister may, by notice published in the Gazette appoint (NGOs Act 2002 Document) The aim of this presentation is to review NGOs Act to explore the weakness and strength of the Act.
3.2 Background of Civil society and NGOs in Tanzania
The freedom of association in Tanzania, implications for civil society and sustainable development (McHale R; 1997): this freedom enables people who share similar interests to come together and form organization that represents their interest and views: for example, political parties, trade unions, co-operations, and other NGOs and civil society organizations. The implications for civil society and NGOs as well as their efforts to promote development, social equity, and environmental management are clear. They were legislation-the societies Act ordinance of 1954. Allowed the NGOs to register to become legal organizations to operate in the country and required the NGOs to furnish the register with audited financial dealings. The main problems facing. (Lawyers’ environmental former legislation the society ordinance, 1954)
The NGOs are lack of transparent, accountability and financial management and control. Action team 2001). There was a need to review the came up with ACT 2002. in December parliament passed a law to regulate the activities of NGOs.(Lawyers Environmental Action Team. 2007). Since then the NGOs Act was amended and signed by the former President of United Republic of Tanzania, Benjamin William Mkapa on 24th June 2005, It was enacted by the Parliament and was cited as the Written Laws (Miscellaneous Amendment (No 2) Act 2005. The written Laws specified in various parts of Act were amended in the manner specified in each of the relevant parts (An Act to amend certain written law, 2005)
3.3 Non Governmental in Tanzania
Non-governmental organization also known by acronym as NGO means a voluntary grouping of individuals or organizations which is autonomous, non-partisan, non-profit sharing. NGOs Organized at the local national or International level for the purpose of enhancing or promoting economic, environmental, social or cultural development or protecting the environment, lobbying or allocating on such issues. Also established under the auspices of any religious or faith, propagating organization, trade unison sports club, polluted party, religious or facet organization, or community based organization but does not include a trade union, social club, a religious or facet propagating organization or community based organization.
3.4 NGO Act 2002 and financial management
An Act No. 24 of 2002 was provided of Non- Governmental Organization with a view to coordinate and regulates activities of Non-Governmental Organizations and to provide for related matters. This was enacted by the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania. In many NGOs financial management is given a law priority. This is often characterized by poor financial planning and monitoring system. But NGOs operate in a rapidly changing and competitive world. If their organizational are to survive in this challenging environment, managers need to develop the necessary understanding and confidence to made full use of financial management tools. Good practice in financial management, help managers to make effective and efficient use of resources to achieve objectives and fulfill commitments to stakeholders. Help NGOs to be more accountable to donors and other stakeholders, gain the respect and confidence of funding agencies, partners and beneficiaries. The Financial management gives the NGOs the advantage in competition for increasingly scarce resources. it help NGOs prepare themselves for long-term financial sustainability.
3.5 Relation of CO and NGOs in Tanzania, to CED
Participation of public (Government) private (Business) and civil society organization is essential to the success of CED efforts. Faith- based organizational participation provides the community with a wide rage of resources and knowledge. It depoliticizes CED projects, thus allowing for their long- term sustainability. The increased it resources and sustainability holsters the confidence of potential investors, thereby increasing the attractiveness of the community to businesses. In Tanzania the public sectors consist of publicly supported government units. This sector includes Municipal government, Local representatives of national governments (i.e. agricultural extension offices or public health clinics and schools and universities operated by their representatives, it includes individual commercial; business ranging from one person vendors in large corporations, Banks and lastly chambers of commence and other business support organization. All these organizations supports the initiatives of CED to enhance Poverty reduction.
3.6 Citizen Participation in CED
There is a training module for CED which can be applied by the civil society and other NGOs. The module aid for coordinating the public, private and community Sectors is commonly applied by the development officers who work in a community which have several CO and NGO’s who conduct different projects in the same community. All COs and NGOs required fully participation of the community members. (Citizen Participation). Citizen Participation is critical factor in successful community economic development (CED). The materials and experimental activities in the module clearly show importance of individual and the group participation in CED. A number of specific techniques are described that can increase and maintain citizens’ participation. (Peace Corps Volunteer, 2003) in providing participation. The outcome of participation is that it provides the opportunity of the community to be involved from the planning to evaluation stage as in CED processes. The Volunteer could take to move community residents to a higher level of participation and identified the activities which the community members might undertake to improve the quality of life of their residents by creating new community wealth. The module provides the information on the society, government (public), Business (Private), and community (Civil Society) can participate in CED.
3.7 Participation as the key to achieve CED Goals
Participatory planning, monitoring and evaluation and participatory analysis are the development methods used in Tanzania to enhance rural community development. It was being provided in the 21st century. There is a good reason for this emphasis on participation. Participation by project stakeholders, including beneficiaries, increases the odds that the project will meet local needs, will be culturally acceptable will be able to mobilize adequate resources and will be long lived.
To achieve CED goals of improving the community economic situation and building community capacity requires the participation of individual residents, organization and institutions. The experience of CED implementers and development groups suggests that there is a significant correlation between the level and intensity of people’s engagement in a project and the impact of development activity. Also there is interaction of the civil society, NGO and Government. Therefore a CED Journey is a group tour. (Citizen Participation in CED, 2003)
3.8 The Freedom of Association in Tanzania
The implementation for civil society and sustainable Development (Ragemeleza Nshala).A cornerstone of democratic governance and constitutional liberation is the freedom of association. The freedom enables people who share similar interest to come together and association allows for the formation of political parties, trade unions cooperation and other non-governmental organizations. ( NGOs) and the Civil Society (CSOs). The freedom of association helps the citizens to monitor the state to ensure appropriate discharging of public functions and to demand the government compliance as articulated in legislation, in doing so, it helps to ensure transparency and accountability. The freedom enables individuals and organizations with different view on public policy to come together and develop a strategy to voice their positions to government and the public. Therefore the freedom of association anables the populace to be a participant in the day to day management of the country
3.9 The Implication for Civil Society and NGOs in Development
Tanzania Civil Society and NGOs aid to promote development, social equity and environmental management there is effective advocacy is dependant on an establishing environment that provides important rights, including the freedom of association, expression, and information. Without them civil society has little political space and few opportunities to hold government accountable. The freedom of civil organizations especially those with dissenting views and opposing positions. In 1964 the government banned independent trade union and formed the National Union of Tanzania Workers (NUTA) a state controlled trade union. They essentially outlawed strikes and the right to advocate for fair wages. In 1968, it passed a law curtailing the activities of Cooperative Unions. In 1976 it dealt a devastating blow to the cooperative union by outlawing them. In the absence of civil society organizations, the government enacted and pursues policies often through a Presidential Decree or administrative fiat-some of which had profound and negative impacts on the well-being of most Tanzanians. For example in 1973 – 1975 the state resettled about 80% of the population in Ujamaa villages which resulted in famine and drastic reduction of crop production. To date, Tanzania has not recovered from the aftermath of this policy.
3.10 NGOs and participation of women Development
The term NGO also an umbrella concept that covers a wide range of organizations with different backgrounds based on target beneficiaries, donors, areas of operational focus, principles, mission and overall development goals The role of Non- governmental organizations involved in the third world relief and development work has received increasing attention in recent years, to such an extent that some scholars (Nelson and Wright, 1995) has termed the 1980’s as the decade of NGOs’, In all these the participation of women in development activities is crucial. The result of the research conducted in Tanzania, examined with a focus on the experience and activities of selected development NGOs operating in various parts of Tanzanian in responding to a question on the responsibility of women in enhancing participation in the NGOs activities, generally the respondents said that women have to participate in development activities, increase majority understanding of their activities, women should educate themselves on the activities of NGO, and also to take the initiative, inactivate themselves and identify their problems in NGOs and lastly women should be motivated by giving priority to participate. The majority of the interviewed women in Tanzania were of opinion that there was a need to establish activities that were more direct and especially concerned with women conditions. For instance facilitating women with working tools, capital and credit facilities. Paul (1967)
3.11 The Nature of NGOs and donors relationship
There is too much pressure from donors to incorporate gender concerns in projects has resulted in many organizations (including NGOs) taking gender issues in a mechanism fashion. The gender issues are incorporated into many programmes only to meet a requirement for resource mobilization. This has not allowed organizations to let gender issues evolved in an organic manner as part of pursuing participatory processes. It has also led to resistance from many indigenous originations as gender is perceived to be an agenda from outside and regarded as being a women’ s issue. The study reveals that in order to ensure the availability of funds, there should be an involvement of donors
And other stakeholders in the processes of any NGO project design to ensure production of quality proposals that can be funded In some cases donors have demanded the inclusion of certain stakeholders in to the projects as a condition for funding; for instance working in partnership with districts whereby in some areas districts contribution to projects was difficult to be realize as agreed, thus hindering the effectiveness of the development activities. The findings also indicated that most donors are not willing to fund long-term projects and these cause NGOs to most of time adhere to the donor’s regulations by formulating short term projects, in order to mobilize funds which are sometimes counter productive.
3. 12 Debate on the role and functions of NGOs in Tanzania
There have been debates and discussions in Tanzania that have instigated the government of Tanzania to pass a bill in the parliament which means NGOs will be closely monitored by the government through provisions for registration, coordination and regulation by the Board. The bill also provides for the procedure promulgation of code of conduct for NGOs. A special bill supplement of the NGOs Bill was passed in the parliament on the 13th of November 2002. It happens that most stakeholders had been involved in the preparation of the bill.
3.13 Mushrooms NGOs and the support to HIV/AIDS
The debates had been raised due to fact that NGOs in Tanzania have mushroomed so fast, and this has caused mistrust on the NGOs. Moreover, it was felt that some NGOs seem to have lost focus. Tanzanians are wondering what a large numbers of NGOs are doing in regards to development. The Tanzanian daily newspaper, the guardian of 14th November 2002, cites examples of NGOs actions that have performed contrary to their constitutions. Many examples of such acts were given by the parliamentarians during the debates in the parliament. For example, a case was cited whereby a person whose NGO was given 20m US dollars, had deposited the money into his personal account. Another case was said to have happened in certain region in Tanzania whereby members of an NGO, which deals with Ant-HIV/AIDS campaigns, were given 28 million Tanzania shillings but spent only 5 million and the rest was pocketed. It is this kind of NGOs that the Tanzanian government has decided to deal with. The parliamentarians also mentioned that there were some NGOs that involve themselves in politicking in their respective constituencies.
3.14 Typical Examples of CSOs and NGOs in Tanzania
USAID supported the private sectors, commercial, Non- commercial, and Faith based organizations dealing with HIV/AIDS projects. Tanzania undertook a major review of the country’s development strategy in 1986 and stated the process of building a liberalized free market economy. The Tanzania Development vision 2025 government planning document spells out a long-term development policy. The Government of Tanzania (GOT) has embarked on an ambitious plan to implement several key HIV/AIDS intervention and has developed documents that guide in that process such as the national Health Sector HIV/AIDS intervention and has developed documents that guide in that process such as the National Health Sector HIV/AIDS strategy that describes key programs in Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT), Home Based Care (HBC) and services to Orphans. The National Care and Treatment to provide treatment to 440,000 People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) all the planned activities involved other private sectors including CSOs and NGOs.
3.15 Report and Evaluation of the Programs conducted by CO and NGOs
3.16 Performance and results obtained:-
AMREF successfully increased demand for HIV testing by promoting communication between adults and youth. Fourteen VCT sites served 45,369 clients during period July 2002 – June 2003.In Zanzibar over 4,200 individuals were test at USAID – funded VCT sites. Condom scales of 27.5 million exceeded target by two million. Couple years of protection were estimated at 1.5 million.
The RFE/ HIV/AIDS attracted $ 3.25 million from 8 donors, and made awards to 11 NGO’s .John Snow International DELIVER project strengthened the integrated logistics system and through drug stock-out surveys, identified logistics priorities for PMTCT. PEPFAR. USAID led the donor sub-committee providing technical guidance to MOH for formulating of the health sector HIV/ AIDS activities. The total of 32 partnership committees awarded 184 grants to community groups for RCH and HIV/ AIDS activities. Immunization for measles and polio and vitamin A supplementation covered 80% of target population. By the end of the strategy, stronger national systems were supported improved and decentralized delivery of health and HIV/ AIDS services, including the public- private partnership.
3 17 Involvement of NGOs in HIV.AIDS intervention
USAIDS allocated a total of $ 100,000 (DA) from democracy, conflicts and humanitarian assistance 2000-2005 budget for advocacy for improved NGO legislation. USAID continued to work with key NGOs for the environment and HIV/AIDS sectors. For the Implementation of NGOs legislation ($ 40,000 DA) Depending on the outcome of proposed amendments to the existing NGOs law. USAID facilitated fair, equitable and competent implementation of the revised law governing the NGO community. Partnerships between government and NGO’s for environment and HIV/AIDS sectors continue to mature USAIDS integrated the strategies plan project covers (2005 – 2014)
3.18 Achievements of the program
Mission- supported reproductive health activities have been focused on the following;
Increasing contraceptive acceptance. Improving the health and well being of both women and children through birth spacing of at least 2 years. Making planning services to all who need it. Targeting family life educator programs and family planning towards men as well as women.-family planning/ maternal and child health Components of the program include increases in couple years of protection up to 1.5 million in 2003.
USAIDS/ Tanzania have repeatedly met its target of 80% of children receiving vitamin A, supplementation and tetanus inoculation. The mission supported introduction of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) of malaria in pregnancy went national wide in under 2 years, coverage increased from 29% in 2001 to 65% in 2003.
USAIDS is recognized as Tanzania’s major donor for family planning and a leading for maternal and child health; UNICEF, who had a number of donors also plays a substantial role through their support of a basket funding mechanism.
USAID/ Tanzania has comparative advantage in a number of important areas, including the ability to target assistance outside the basket of history of successful partnerships with non-governmental organization strategic planning logistics management. Contraceptive
Security and training and capacity building.
3.19 Key achievement for HIV/AIDS Programs
USAIDS/ Tanzania’s supported HIV/ AIDS programs, and had a significant impact on policy and leadership issues as the government has transitioned from health response to the epidemic. The mission spearheaded the creation of several innovative, multi-donor funding mechanisms to support public- voluntarily partnerships in HIV/ AIDS including rapid funding envelope (RFE) which is streamlined mechanism for providing funds to local organization involved in the HIV/ AIDS response. The mission has also maintained a high profile as an engaged poor donor partner committed to harmonization and coordination. The mission has been heavily involved in decentralizing service delivery to the district level in the line with national decentralization polices.
In 2003, USAID/ Tanzania launched The Prevention from Mother to Child HIV Transmission (PMTCT).This is an International Preventive program initiated by the Us with the collaboration with Disease Control and Prevention Program (CDC) under the under the leadership of the Ministry of the health.
3.20 USAID/ Expectations/ the way forward
Under the president’s emergency plan, USAIDS/ Tanzania is expected to reduce the number of new infections, particularly among the youth; 2nd, the increase of the number of people living with HIV/ AIDS who are accessing care and treatment services. 3rd, increase the number of orphaned or vulnerable children who have accessed to social and economic support. The intermediate results in the missions proposed results to framework of HIV/ AIDS includes a range of activities considered essential for achieving the plan’s targets. Given the dynamic nature of the epidemic and its impact, the intermediate results are necessarily broad. USAIDS anticipates the technical improvement in the response as dramatic as those which have occurred in the past 5 years (1999-2004) will also occur over the next 10 years (2005-2014) which could have a significant impact on the mission’s strategic and tactical approaches. As a result, in planning for 2005-2014. USAID/ Tanzania have chosen flexible approaches that will allow the mission to adjust to changes in the country’s epidemic and its response (TMHRC).
Therefore, USAIDS/ Tanzania has achieved much on the previous program conducted from 1999-2004. Before the scaling- up HIV/ AIDS services. USAIDS/ Tanzania projects, the summary of the programs, implementation, education, and reports.
Therefore, USAIDS/ Tanzania has achieved much on the previous HIV/ AIDS programs conducted from 1999-2004, before the scaling-up phase (2005-2014). USAID/ Tanzania’s mission gained experience which was used as a baseline on scaling up the HIV/ AIDS services in Tanzania.
3.22 ISHI COMPAIGN PROJECT FUNDED BY USAIDS
ISHI, “LIVE” in Kiswahili, was an HIV and AIDS behavior change communication campaign for young men and women in Dar-Es-Salaam that was inspired by the World AIDS Day 2000 theme; men make a difference. The primary intended audience of the campaign in – and – out of school youth ages 15-19. The campaign’s overall objective was to increase the number of youth aged 15-19 who believe that they are a personal risk of contracting HIV/ AIDS. The initial phase is planned for November 2001 to February 2002 with the hope that lessons learned during this period will provide the spring board for a sustained nationwide campaign reaching young people through media and community level activities that appeal to them.
In Tanzania, 56% of boys have had sex by the time they are 19 while 52% of girls aged 15-19 are sexually active. Although levels of awareness about transmission and preventive measures against HIV/ AIDS is high, the majority of youth believe that they are at no risk of HIV infection and continue to practice unsafe sex with only 5.4 % of boys and 6.3% of girls believing they are at personal risk. Among 15-19 old boys, 84 % have never tried a condom. For 15-19 old girls, only 18% report having used a condom.
The key message of the fist phase of the campaign was “wait or use Condom, you can’t tell by looking” ISHI was aimed to facilitate behavioral change among Youth. Through role plays. Platform shows, football marches, and the campaign targets youth through a wide variety of mutually reinforcing mass media and community level activities
ISHI evaluation was carried out by the end of 2002, where by both quantitative and qualitative methods of collecting data were used, there is highly increase of awareness among the youth in urban and moderate in rural area. Increased knowledge about HIV transmission and strategies to avoid infection, an increased perception of personal risk and an increase motivation to seek out HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing. (Ishi Campaign in Tanzania, 2002 report)
4.0 POLICY REVIEW
4.1 CSOs and NGOs inclusion in Tanzania Policies.
Tanzania adopted a National Poverty Eradication Strategy (NPES) in June 1998 the basis of which was to encourage community based anti-poverty efforts with the support of government, donors and NGOs. The aim is to reduce absolute poverty by half by 2010 and to eliminate it entirely by 2025. The baseline on which Tanzania will measure its progress comes from the UNDPs Human Poverty Index that measures areas such as people’s vulnerability to early death, access to education and health services as well as distribution of income. The poverty eradication strategy is being coordinated through the Vice-President’s office by means of a committee representing Ministries, donors, NGOs and the private sector. All policies and programs are to be evaluated from anti-poverty perspectives through this system. All local government development plans are also now much more focused on poverty alleviation in principle. There are many local Civil Society Organization (CSOs), self – help groups and cooperatives in operation all of whom are hoping to work towards alleviating the poverty in which they find themselves. they are directly tackling issues ranging from HIV to income generation and micro- credit. As government decentralized more of its power to the local level, these CSOs will become increasingly important partners for the implementation of poverty reduction plans.
4.2 The decision making policy
The Tanzania Government should be congratulated for opening up our system of local governance to community involvement of Civil Society organization for creating many more opportunities for people to have a say or over services in their area are run. The main challenge is how to make most of what we have got through the CSOs and NGOs such as in health and education through policies and practices which will liberate more people from poverty and for among the community members to be committed to be agents of social change.
4.3 The community development policy
The community development policy gives guidance on how communities will be helped to build their capacity to implement their responsibilities. The policy also states clearly the responsibilities of different concerned parties in speeding up community development in the country. The major objective of the Community Development policy is to enable Tanzanians as an individuals or in their families and /or groups or associations such as CSOs and NGOs to contribute more to the government objectives of self reliance and therefore bring about development at all levels and finally have a remarkable national growth.
Poverty reduction Policy as explained in PRSP the government of Tanzania there are several policies related to women development and HIV prevention e.g. Health policy (1990) in Tanzania, its main objective is to improve the health and well-being of all Tanzanians, with a focus on those on most at risk and to encourage the health system to be more responsive to the need of the people.. Reduce infant maternal morbidity and increase the expectancy through the provision of education and equitable and child health services promotion and adequate nutrition, control of communicable diseases and treatment of common conditions.
CSOs and NGOs should contribute to implement the policies and fulfill the National vision
5.0 MY OWN DISCUSION
5.1 CSOs and NGOs in Tanzania
Decentralization has brought problems, but the principle should help to increase civic responsibility and thus curb the ever present force of corruption. The government’s commitment to the National Poverty Eradication Strategy show that it takes the issue of poverty seriously even through the targets may be somewhat unrealistic. Donor dependency syndrome, affects all the communities depends totally to donors. The way in which financial resources are channeled to CSOs and the subsequent donor- CSO relationship is often a major constraint on CSO capacity and success in development. The CSOs and NGOs should plan for sustainability of the planning from the first stage of the project cycle. The dependency on donor funding entails substantial risk to CSOs identity and autonomy can undermine the CSOs autonomy to advocate against policies that are unpopular with government with other donors. The performance of CSO donor relationship risk imposing, imported foreign models on CSOs and NGOs.
For sustainable development and good governance in Tanzania need to take proactive actions to protect the freedom of association and expression of civil societies the amendment of law was introduced in order to restrict the freedom and rights of NGOs and Civil Society to advocate and monitor the country activities. The freedom of information will help to ensure the transparency and accountability.
6.0 CONCLUSION
The need for the development and poverty reduction is crucial and hence it needs multisectoral approach, where by the Government and other stakeholders such as Civil Society and Non Governmental Organization should be involved The urgent need for the development assistance community to voice its concern about the status and rights of NGOs in Tanzania, such as the newly established NGO department in the Office of the Vice-President.
7.0 REFERENCES.
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10.http://www.tanzania.go.tz//gender.httmlii/21/2007 http//www.ical.org/knowledge/ijnl/volmiss/special3rhttm 1/2/2008
11. Jackson, E (2007) A CED Cap Briefing Note, All Tools, .Connection: Scaling up the Impact of CED Intervention. Carleton University.
12.Nshala. R (2001) Lawyers Environmental Action Team (2001) The Freedom of Association in Tanzania, implication for civil society and sustainable Development. Tanzania
13. Neantan.N (2007) The political Imperative. Connection: Civil Society & the Political Empowerment. Rethinking Social & Economic Development.
14. NGO and African the new Millennium Lessons from Tanzania, Connection: Rethinking African Development, Nairobi, Kampala and Uganda
15. USAID/Tanzania, (18/1/ 2007) Annual program statement, Scaling up HIV/AIDS Services, Bagamoyo Road, Dar-es Salaam .Tanzania
16. SARPN Southern African Regional Poverty network, Civil society case study in Tanzania
!7. Sustainable Development(2006) Social aspects of sustainable Development in the United Republic of Tanzania. Connection: poverty, decision making and development
18. The International 3 of Not-for-pro Response to Strengthening Civil Society. A case study in Tanzania. Connection: The evolution of Civil Society relation
NEEMA WELLU NSALLUMsc. CED
Saturday, December 13, 2008
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE IN POVERT REDUCTION
COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM
ICD 533 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICLES OF DEVELOPMENT
SEPT 2007 ASSIGNMENT
JOURNAL
KNOWLEDGE
&
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE IN POVERTY REDUCTION
TUTOR’S NAME: DR SINDA HUSSEN SINDA
STUDENT’S NAME: NEEMA WELLU NSALLU ( ID No 728177).
DSM class (attended in Arusha)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW-------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1 Definition-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2 Knowledge acquisition-------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.3 Knowledge creation-----------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.4 Knowledge evaluation--------------------------------------------------------------------4
3.0 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE----------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.1 Tacit Knowledge--------------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.2 Knowledge economy---------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.3 Life long knowledge----------------------------------------------------------------------6
3.4 Explicit Knowledge-----------------------------------------------------------------------6
3.5 Other ways of describing knowledge---------------------------------------------------6
4.0 KNOWLEDGE FOR POVERTY REDUCTION---------------------------------------------6
4.1 UNDP view on Knowledge--------------------------------------------------------------6
4.2 World Bank view on Knowledge products and services-----------------------------7
4.3 The importance of ICTT on knowledge facilitation---------------------------------8
5.0 KIND OF KNOWLEDGE WE NEED FOR POVERTY REDUCTION------------------8
5.1 Knowledge about development partners-----------------------------------------------8
5.2 Knowledge on resources-----------------------------------------------------------------9
5.3 Knowledge on technology---------------------------------------------------------------9
5.4 Education and training as fundamental of Knowledge-------------------------------9
5.5 Knowledge management-----------------------------------------------------------------9
6.0 EMPERICAL REVIEW-------------------------------------------------------------------------10
6.1 Knowledge and poverty reduction in Tanzania--------------------------------------10
6.2 Current situation-------------------------------------------------------------------------10
6.3 Knowledge as the key for poverty reduction----------------------------------------10
6.4 Use of indigenous Knowledge for development------------------------------------11
6.5 ICT in Tanzania aid for development-------------------------------------------------11
6.6 Mwl Nyerere argument on knowledge-----------------------------------------------12
6.7 National Strategies on Poverty reduction--------------------------------------------12
7.0 POLICIES RELATED---------------------------------------------------------------------------12
8.0 CONCLUSION-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
9.0 REFERENCES-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GDLN-----------------------------Global Development Learning Network
ICT --------------------------------Information, Communication and Technology
IK-----------------------------------Indigenous Knowledge
UNDP----------------------------United Nations Development Program
WB I------------------------------World Bank Institute
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper comprises the overview term Knowledge, types of knowledge, the role of knowledge in poverty reduction.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition: Knowledge defined as expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. Knowledge is known as a particular field or in total facts and information or awareness or familiarity gained by experience of fact or situation. However there is no single agreed definition of knowledge presently. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia)
2.2 Knowledge acquisition: Knowledge involves complex cognitive processes, perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose.
2.3 Knowledge creation
Knowledge unlike capital and labour, knowledge strives to be public good. Once knowledge is discovered and made public, it can be shared with many users. Therefore the creator of knowledge finds it difficult to prevent others from using it. Instruments such as trade secret, protection and patents, copy rights and trademarks provide the creator some sort of protection.
There are different kinds of knowledge that can useful be distinguished such us knowledge of facts, knowledge about society, the natural world and human mind. The knowledge can be used to identification of resources, Knowing scientific principles, reflects skills, the ability to things on a practical level.
2.4 Knowledge evolution
Knowledge revolution has been the spearhead by rapidly advances in the science a wide range of areas from information and communication technologies (ICT) to biotechnology, to the engineering of new materials. The rapid development and spread of knowledge facilitated by technical progress is creating a more competitive and interdependent world. The knowledge revolution provides great potential for countries to strengthen their economic and social development by providing more efficient ways of producing goods and services and deliver them more effectively and at lower to greater number of people. The knowledge divide between the advanced countries ,who are more generating most of this knowledge and developing countries who are comparatively less developed markets, institutions, telecommunications, infrastructures or educated people to create, adapt and make effective use of the rapidly growing stock of knowledge and there have to develop strategies to overcome some of these constrains.
3.0 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
3.1 Tacit knowledge:
Is knowledge gained by an individual by experience, rather than that gained through formal education and training. Tacit knowledge can be articulated as the informal knowledge. The concept of tacit knowledge comes from scientific and philosopher (Michael Polany, 2000). Is the knowledge that people carry in their minds, it is difficult to access, other people are not aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Tacit knowledge is considered more valuable because it provides context for people places, ideas and experiences. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge requires extensive personal contact and trust.
3.2 Knowledge Economy
Knowledge gained through, learning and training can be explained as knowledge of economy, and the implication of the knowledge economy is that there is no alternative way of prosperity than to make learning and knowledge creation of prime importance.
The learning economy individuals and countries will be able to create wealth in their proportion to their capacity to learn and share innovation (Foray and Lundvall, 1996; Lundvall and Johnson, 1994). Formal education, too, needs to become less about passing on information and focus more on teaching people how to learn.
3.3 Life long Knowledge
It is the knowledge given at organizational level such as institutes, it is vital for individuals and organizations. At a level of organization, learning must be continuous. Organizational learning is the process by which organization acquire tacit knowledge and experience. Such knowledge is unlikely to be available in codified form, so it cannot be acquired by formal education and training. Instead it requires a continuous cycle of discovery, dissemination and the emergence of sharing understandings which lead to successful firms which are the priority to need to build a learning capacity within the organization.
3.4 Explicit knowledge
It is the knowledge that has been or can be articulated, and stored in certain media. It can be readily transmitted to others. The most common forms of explicitly knowledge are annuals, documents and procedures. Knowledge also can be audio-visual. Works of art and product design can be seen an other forms of explicit knowledge where human skills, motives and knowledge are externalized. (http:en.wikipedia.org)
3.5 Other ways of describing Knowledge
Knowledge can be described as communicating knowledge (Symbolic representations), Situated knowledge (knowledge specific to a particular situation), Partial knowledge (one discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge).
4.0 KNOWLEDGE FOR POVERTY REDUCTION
4.1 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) view
Exchange of information is helpful in fighting poverty the exchange which will supply necessary information about the National and perhaps international markets to the poor who would then know what product, where it is solid to bring better profit.
Knowledge is the light it is weightless and tangible, it can be travel throughout the world. Billions of people still live in poverty unnecessary. For example they lack knowledge on how to prevent and treat communicable diseases such as malaria and diarrhoea.
Knowledge- sharing used to build capacity for successful development. Through the millennium declaration and the millennium development goals the world is addressing the many dimension of human development, including halving by 2015 the proportion of people living in extreme poverty. Developing countries are working to create their own national poverty eradication strategies based on local needs and priorities.
United nations development programme UNDP advocates for these nationally- owned solutions and help to make them affective through insuring a greater voice for poor people, ascending assess to productive assets an economic opportunities and linking poverty programmes with countries, internal economics and financial policies. Also UNDP contributes to efforts at reforming trade, dept belief and investments arrangements to better support national poverty reduction and make globalisation work for poor people aid in information sharing UNDP/ poverty reduction www.undp.org/poverty/overview.htm 3/12/07
4.2 World Bank view on Knowledge products and Services
Creating, sharing, and applying knowledge through its analysis and advisory services has always been an important part of the Bank’s role in assisting client countries to promote growth and reduce poverty. In recent years the Bank has begun to organize its knowledge activities in a systematic way. It focuses on three areas: making effective use of knowledge to support the quality of its operations; sharing knowledge with its clients and partners, leading to participatory development activities supplemented with a range of technology based programs to enhance knowledge sharing; and helping clients enhance their capacity to generate, access, and use knowledge from all sources.The Bank’s global knowledge outreach initiatives include the World Bank Institute (WBI) learning programs, which broker and distill local and global knowledge; the Global Development Learning Network (GDLN); the Development Gateway; World Links; the Global Development Network; African Virtual University; www.worldbank.org/ks/initiatives.html.)The growing awareness that the efficient use of knowledge makes the Bank a more effective institution has led to the mainstreaming of capacity building in its operational work. For example, a “knowledge economy assessment tool” is being used to help countries diagnose their policy and investment needs as they enter the global economy. In response to increasing country demand, WBI leverages its partnerships with other content providers and donors to deliver, for example, courses for journalists, seminars for parliamentarians, and action-learning programs on anticorruption and legal and judicial reform for government officials and policymakers
4.4 The importance of ICT on knowledge facilitation
Information and communication technology ICT are the enables of change. They do not themselves create transformation in society. ICT are best regarded as the facilitators of knowledge creation in innovative societies (OECD, 1996). The new economics looks at ICT not as drivers of change but as tools for releasing the creative potential and knowledge embodied in people.
However, the ICT sector has a powerful multiplier effect in the overall economy compared with manufacturing. A 1995 study of the effect of software producer Microsoft on the local economy revealed that each job at Microsoft created new jobs in Washington State, whereas a job at Boeing created 3.8 jobs (Mandel, 1997). Wealth-generation is becoming more closely tied to the capacity to add value using ICT products and services. The value of accumulated knowledge within New Zealand is an important indicator of its future growth potential.
5.0 KIND OF KNOWLEDGE WE NEED FOE DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Knowledge on development partners
Fighting poverty requires a Global strategy to share knowledge systematically and energetically to ensure that people who need that knowledge get it on time. The World Bank has become a department to find out who know what and access of expertise for different dev. Activities. Continuously sharing with Global and local know –how with client – countries, public and private partner and other civil societies to ensure poverty reduction/ fight of poverty.
5.2 Knowledge on resources
Education is the key to knowledge, education increases peoples capacity to learn and to interpret information. High education and technical training are also needed to produce the Labour force/human resources that can keep up with a constant stream of technological advances. Which produce cycle and depreciation of human capacity e.g. education farmers with the information about best use of new method.
5.3 Knowledge on technology.
World Bank recognizing that developing Productivity of technology plan in promoting economic growth and social progress. The World Bank with partners and civil societies committed to help the developing countries to address challenges and opportunities of new advances in science and Technology
5.4 Education and training as fundamental of Knowledge
Education is the fundamental enables knowledge creation. Well educated and skilled people are key for creating, sharing, disseminating and using knowledge effectively. The knowledge economy requires an education system which is flexible, from starting from basic education that provides the foundation for learning, to secondary and tertiary education that can develop core skills, including technical ones, that encourage creative and critical thinking critical for problem- solving and innovation, to a system of life long learning from childhood, to formal schools, training institutions and universities and informal learning( Skills learned from family members or people in the community.) http://www.development/gateway.org
5.5 Knowledge management
Knowledge management is a management theory which emerged in the 1990s. it seek to understand the way it which knowledge is created, used and shared within organizations. Knowledge management comprises a range of practices used by organizations to identify, create, represent and distribute knowledge. The large companies have resources dedicated to knowledge Management, other as a part of information, technology on Human resource Management departments and sometimes reporting directly to the head of the organisation. As effectively managing information is a must in any business, knowledge and information are intertwined; knowledge management is a multi-billion dollar world wide market.
6.0 EMPERICAL REVIEW
6.1 KNOWLEDGE AND POVERT REDUCTION IN TANZANIA
6.2 Current situation
The poverty situation in Tanzania is manifested in a poor quality of social and economic services, less than half of the rural population have access to safe and clean water and large of a part of countryside is inaccessible during the rainy seasons. The other attributes of poverty are exclusion, powerlessness and voiceless ness, especially of women in social and political spheres; children also suffer from limited rights of survey and development
Rural poverty in the country has been halved in the period from 1995 to 2001, at present about 36% of people living in rural areas are classified as power. The program is reflected in the United Nations Development Programmes, Human index for Tanzania which rose from 0.3 in 1990 to 0.4 in 2002. Poverty is still widespread and acute and generally a rural phenomenon. I.e. 85% pf country’s poor people live in rural areas and in agriculture as their main source of income and live hood.
According to the house survey of 2000/03 some of 20% of rural people live in extremely poverty and about 35% are considered poor within the Agriculture sector; food crop producers but both play under cyclical and structural constraints are subjected to Natural disasters such as drought and floods; also lack of market linkages inputs credit and irrigation water
6.3 Knowledge is the key for poverty reduction
Since independence in 1961, the government of Tanzania has had poverty eradicate as its man goal, one of the intervention measures suggested is the introduction and implementation of socials and economic policies which address the issues of poverty both at National and individual level. This many necessitate increase state intervention in education and other social welfare service, the creation and dissemination of knowledge which is useful in our culture context in addressing the key challenges of straitening to reduce pervasive poverty Tanzania.
6.4 Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Poverty Reduction.
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is defined as local or traditional knowledge that is unique to every culture or society, which sometimes influences local decision-making in different areas. In some communities, it is even regarded as a problem solving mechanism to rural communities. IK is recognized as having relevance to the daily life routine of most individuals, economic development, culture preservation and political transformation, which lead to poverty reduction. IK plays part in contributing to poverty eradication among communities in Tanzania. IK is implicit knowledge and thus difficult to systemize, it is embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships and rituals
The indigenous knowledge database is a product of the Tanzania Development Gateway, an initiative that uses Information Technology and the Internet to promote social and economic development within Tanzania. The database has been established to enhance sharing and dissemination of IK information, experiences and practices in Tanzania.
Objectives of this database is to provides a platform/ system where IK is captured, stored and disseminated, Provide a mechanism of sharing this knowledge and also integrate it with modern science and technology to enhance information dissemination , Promote sharing and dissemination of IK information, experience and practices in Tanzania. In realization of IK and its contribution to social and economic development, the database will promote development of IK systems to improve local communities by establishing a mechanism. (Indigenous knowledge gateway Tanzania).
6.5 ICT in Tanzania aid for development
A rural -urban digital divide, Regional aspects of internet use in Tanzania The digital divide is the gap between those with regular; effective accesses to digital, technologies, in particular the Internet, and those without. This article takes a closer look at the digital divide within Tanzania. Based on a survey among Internet café users in rural, semi-urban and central regions of the country, we find that the divide is mainly a question of finding venues with technology to access the Internet. (Admin, November 26, 2007)
6.6 Mwalimu Nyerere Argument on Knowledge.
Education fir self-reliance (1967) Nyerere advocates that education should be given to every individual in a nation so as to transmit accumulated wisdom and knowledge from one generation to another.. In this way the younger generation would be prepared for their future membership of their society, and for their active participation in its maintenance or development.
Also he argued that education is for service. It should aim at producing workers, farmers, technicians, and other categories of workers. Knowledge provided in our schools and institutional should be judged interpreted and put in practices. Thus knowledge should develop individuals an inquiring mind, on ability to learn from others with ability to disseminate that knowledge to younger ones and a basic confidence in their own positions as free and equal members of society, so as` to enable then to judge social issues by themselves.
Education should increase man’s power over himself and his environment. The function of learning is the development of men and mankind. The education should enlighten and show him how and why is should limit his desires, why and how to conquer, shape and protect his environment for posterity.
Lastly Mwalimu argued that the aim of education related to liberate men e.g. the primary purpose of education is liberation of men. Education has to make man more of a human being in the sense that his potentials have to be revealed to him through agency to know himself; It has therefore to enable man to throw off obstacles to freedom which restrict his full physical, political, social and mental development.
The role of a university in developing countries is to contribute, to give ideas, manpower, and services for the furtherance human equality, human dignity and human development. (Education foundations, history of education, 1986).
6.7 National strategies on Poverty reduction
The Government prepared and adopted Development vision in 1999 National strategy in 1997, which spell out a vision for society with object poverty. The National strategy aimed at providing guidance to all stakeholders in identifying, formulating, implementing and evaluating the level of poverty. Also provided a framework to guide poverty by year 2025, based on the following key sectors: health, nutrition, water, agriculture, education and rural roads. The National Strategy has identified aspects of strategic interventions namely:- those creating environment building the capacity for poverty eradication. The vision 2025 is in line with international development goal remains a point of references for current poverty reduction actions
The reduction in the share of population living below the poverty line from around 50% currently to 30% by year 2015 will require significant effort to enhance productivity and increase investment in human capacities requires measures to increase incentives and returns for undertaking such investments and increase public support e. g Primary education and Hearth care structural transformation and intervention of cross cutting issues such as prevention and management of HIV/AIDS
Lastly a long term strategy for agriculture involves sustained macro-economic stability, more effective research and extension, improved infrastructure and developing institutional framework for supporting transformation of agriculture and rural development more broadly.
7.0 POLICIES RELATED
Education and training policies: Recent policy in education sector, technical Education and Training (1996), National Higher Education Policy (1999) and Science and Technology policy (1996) http://w.w.w.tz.online.org As indicated in policy document the role of education sector is to ensure quality, access and equity at all levels on education. Specifically these policies are aiming in improvement of quality education and training, expansion of provision of education and training promotion of science and technology and broadening the base for the financing of education and training. Other policies include the human rights thus all individuals have equal write to access information, education the agencies of knowledge. The important of Information, Communication and Techno lodge can facilitate the knowledge dissemination to the grassroots.
8.0 CONCLUSION
Therefore knowledge is the light; it is power and the key for poverty reduction.
Based on Mwalimu Nyerere augments the need of creation and dissemination of Knowledge from creators to the grassroots it is crucial. The ICT should be used to educate people in the society the strategies and interventions made by the government on poverty reduction, for example the students’ graduates from universes should be expertise to the rural development. Knowledge on improved agricultural methods such as use of fertilisers and primary health care. Our media should be used to educate people on different development areas. Use of radios, television, magazines, telephones etc.
REFERENCES
Achtenberg, J. (2002) Managing Variable. Connection: Research in Behaviour Change.
Chengo.M, (1999) Economic Development, Connection: Enhancing Human Capital, importance of ICT and Globalization for Knowledge sharing
Deiverport, T (1998) Working knowledge, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
Http://www.med.govt.tz/templates multipage document Knowledge Economy, 2/12/07
Http://www.tanzaniagateway.org Indigenous knowledge gateway sharing and dissemination of ICT information5/12/07
Http://en.wikipedia.or/wiki/knowledge Knowledge Management and importance of Intellectual capital , types of knowledge. 5/12/07
Indigenous Knowledge Gateway, Sharing and dissemination of Indigenous Knowledge http://www.tanzaniagateway.org
Krough, G (2000) Enabling Knowledge. Connection: Oxford University Press. New York.
PROGRAM
ICD 533 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICLES OF DEVELOPMENT
SEPT 2007 ASSIGNMENT
JOURNAL
KNOWLEDGE
&
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE IN POVERTY REDUCTION
TUTOR’S NAME: DR SINDA HUSSEN SINDA
STUDENT’S NAME: NEEMA WELLU NSALLU ( ID No 728177).
DSM class (attended in Arusha)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW-------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1 Definition-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2 Knowledge acquisition-------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.3 Knowledge creation-----------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.4 Knowledge evaluation--------------------------------------------------------------------4
3.0 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE----------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.1 Tacit Knowledge--------------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.2 Knowledge economy---------------------------------------------------------------------5
3.3 Life long knowledge----------------------------------------------------------------------6
3.4 Explicit Knowledge-----------------------------------------------------------------------6
3.5 Other ways of describing knowledge---------------------------------------------------6
4.0 KNOWLEDGE FOR POVERTY REDUCTION---------------------------------------------6
4.1 UNDP view on Knowledge--------------------------------------------------------------6
4.2 World Bank view on Knowledge products and services-----------------------------7
4.3 The importance of ICTT on knowledge facilitation---------------------------------8
5.0 KIND OF KNOWLEDGE WE NEED FOR POVERTY REDUCTION------------------8
5.1 Knowledge about development partners-----------------------------------------------8
5.2 Knowledge on resources-----------------------------------------------------------------9
5.3 Knowledge on technology---------------------------------------------------------------9
5.4 Education and training as fundamental of Knowledge-------------------------------9
5.5 Knowledge management-----------------------------------------------------------------9
6.0 EMPERICAL REVIEW-------------------------------------------------------------------------10
6.1 Knowledge and poverty reduction in Tanzania--------------------------------------10
6.2 Current situation-------------------------------------------------------------------------10
6.3 Knowledge as the key for poverty reduction----------------------------------------10
6.4 Use of indigenous Knowledge for development------------------------------------11
6.5 ICT in Tanzania aid for development-------------------------------------------------11
6.6 Mwl Nyerere argument on knowledge-----------------------------------------------12
6.7 National Strategies on Poverty reduction--------------------------------------------12
7.0 POLICIES RELATED---------------------------------------------------------------------------12
8.0 CONCLUSION-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
9.0 REFERENCES-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GDLN-----------------------------Global Development Learning Network
ICT --------------------------------Information, Communication and Technology
IK-----------------------------------Indigenous Knowledge
UNDP----------------------------United Nations Development Program
WB I------------------------------World Bank Institute
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper comprises the overview term Knowledge, types of knowledge, the role of knowledge in poverty reduction.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition: Knowledge defined as expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. Knowledge is known as a particular field or in total facts and information or awareness or familiarity gained by experience of fact or situation. However there is no single agreed definition of knowledge presently. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia)
2.2 Knowledge acquisition: Knowledge involves complex cognitive processes, perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose.
2.3 Knowledge creation
Knowledge unlike capital and labour, knowledge strives to be public good. Once knowledge is discovered and made public, it can be shared with many users. Therefore the creator of knowledge finds it difficult to prevent others from using it. Instruments such as trade secret, protection and patents, copy rights and trademarks provide the creator some sort of protection.
There are different kinds of knowledge that can useful be distinguished such us knowledge of facts, knowledge about society, the natural world and human mind. The knowledge can be used to identification of resources, Knowing scientific principles, reflects skills, the ability to things on a practical level.
2.4 Knowledge evolution
Knowledge revolution has been the spearhead by rapidly advances in the science a wide range of areas from information and communication technologies (ICT) to biotechnology, to the engineering of new materials. The rapid development and spread of knowledge facilitated by technical progress is creating a more competitive and interdependent world. The knowledge revolution provides great potential for countries to strengthen their economic and social development by providing more efficient ways of producing goods and services and deliver them more effectively and at lower to greater number of people. The knowledge divide between the advanced countries ,who are more generating most of this knowledge and developing countries who are comparatively less developed markets, institutions, telecommunications, infrastructures or educated people to create, adapt and make effective use of the rapidly growing stock of knowledge and there have to develop strategies to overcome some of these constrains.
3.0 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
3.1 Tacit knowledge:
Is knowledge gained by an individual by experience, rather than that gained through formal education and training. Tacit knowledge can be articulated as the informal knowledge. The concept of tacit knowledge comes from scientific and philosopher (Michael Polany, 2000). Is the knowledge that people carry in their minds, it is difficult to access, other people are not aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Tacit knowledge is considered more valuable because it provides context for people places, ideas and experiences. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge requires extensive personal contact and trust.
3.2 Knowledge Economy
Knowledge gained through, learning and training can be explained as knowledge of economy, and the implication of the knowledge economy is that there is no alternative way of prosperity than to make learning and knowledge creation of prime importance.
The learning economy individuals and countries will be able to create wealth in their proportion to their capacity to learn and share innovation (Foray and Lundvall, 1996; Lundvall and Johnson, 1994). Formal education, too, needs to become less about passing on information and focus more on teaching people how to learn.
3.3 Life long Knowledge
It is the knowledge given at organizational level such as institutes, it is vital for individuals and organizations. At a level of organization, learning must be continuous. Organizational learning is the process by which organization acquire tacit knowledge and experience. Such knowledge is unlikely to be available in codified form, so it cannot be acquired by formal education and training. Instead it requires a continuous cycle of discovery, dissemination and the emergence of sharing understandings which lead to successful firms which are the priority to need to build a learning capacity within the organization.
3.4 Explicit knowledge
It is the knowledge that has been or can be articulated, and stored in certain media. It can be readily transmitted to others. The most common forms of explicitly knowledge are annuals, documents and procedures. Knowledge also can be audio-visual. Works of art and product design can be seen an other forms of explicit knowledge where human skills, motives and knowledge are externalized. (http:en.wikipedia.org)
3.5 Other ways of describing Knowledge
Knowledge can be described as communicating knowledge (Symbolic representations), Situated knowledge (knowledge specific to a particular situation), Partial knowledge (one discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge).
4.0 KNOWLEDGE FOR POVERTY REDUCTION
4.1 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) view
Exchange of information is helpful in fighting poverty the exchange which will supply necessary information about the National and perhaps international markets to the poor who would then know what product, where it is solid to bring better profit.
Knowledge is the light it is weightless and tangible, it can be travel throughout the world. Billions of people still live in poverty unnecessary. For example they lack knowledge on how to prevent and treat communicable diseases such as malaria and diarrhoea.
Knowledge- sharing used to build capacity for successful development. Through the millennium declaration and the millennium development goals the world is addressing the many dimension of human development, including halving by 2015 the proportion of people living in extreme poverty. Developing countries are working to create their own national poverty eradication strategies based on local needs and priorities.
United nations development programme UNDP advocates for these nationally- owned solutions and help to make them affective through insuring a greater voice for poor people, ascending assess to productive assets an economic opportunities and linking poverty programmes with countries, internal economics and financial policies. Also UNDP contributes to efforts at reforming trade, dept belief and investments arrangements to better support national poverty reduction and make globalisation work for poor people aid in information sharing UNDP/ poverty reduction www.undp.org/poverty/overview.htm 3/12/07
4.2 World Bank view on Knowledge products and Services
Creating, sharing, and applying knowledge through its analysis and advisory services has always been an important part of the Bank’s role in assisting client countries to promote growth and reduce poverty. In recent years the Bank has begun to organize its knowledge activities in a systematic way. It focuses on three areas: making effective use of knowledge to support the quality of its operations; sharing knowledge with its clients and partners, leading to participatory development activities supplemented with a range of technology based programs to enhance knowledge sharing; and helping clients enhance their capacity to generate, access, and use knowledge from all sources.The Bank’s global knowledge outreach initiatives include the World Bank Institute (WBI) learning programs, which broker and distill local and global knowledge; the Global Development Learning Network (GDLN); the Development Gateway; World Links; the Global Development Network; African Virtual University; www.worldbank.org/ks/initiatives.html.)The growing awareness that the efficient use of knowledge makes the Bank a more effective institution has led to the mainstreaming of capacity building in its operational work. For example, a “knowledge economy assessment tool” is being used to help countries diagnose their policy and investment needs as they enter the global economy. In response to increasing country demand, WBI leverages its partnerships with other content providers and donors to deliver, for example, courses for journalists, seminars for parliamentarians, and action-learning programs on anticorruption and legal and judicial reform for government officials and policymakers
4.4 The importance of ICT on knowledge facilitation
Information and communication technology ICT are the enables of change. They do not themselves create transformation in society. ICT are best regarded as the facilitators of knowledge creation in innovative societies (OECD, 1996). The new economics looks at ICT not as drivers of change but as tools for releasing the creative potential and knowledge embodied in people.
However, the ICT sector has a powerful multiplier effect in the overall economy compared with manufacturing. A 1995 study of the effect of software producer Microsoft on the local economy revealed that each job at Microsoft created new jobs in Washington State, whereas a job at Boeing created 3.8 jobs (Mandel, 1997). Wealth-generation is becoming more closely tied to the capacity to add value using ICT products and services. The value of accumulated knowledge within New Zealand is an important indicator of its future growth potential.
5.0 KIND OF KNOWLEDGE WE NEED FOE DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Knowledge on development partners
Fighting poverty requires a Global strategy to share knowledge systematically and energetically to ensure that people who need that knowledge get it on time. The World Bank has become a department to find out who know what and access of expertise for different dev. Activities. Continuously sharing with Global and local know –how with client – countries, public and private partner and other civil societies to ensure poverty reduction/ fight of poverty.
5.2 Knowledge on resources
Education is the key to knowledge, education increases peoples capacity to learn and to interpret information. High education and technical training are also needed to produce the Labour force/human resources that can keep up with a constant stream of technological advances. Which produce cycle and depreciation of human capacity e.g. education farmers with the information about best use of new method.
5.3 Knowledge on technology.
World Bank recognizing that developing Productivity of technology plan in promoting economic growth and social progress. The World Bank with partners and civil societies committed to help the developing countries to address challenges and opportunities of new advances in science and Technology
5.4 Education and training as fundamental of Knowledge
Education is the fundamental enables knowledge creation. Well educated and skilled people are key for creating, sharing, disseminating and using knowledge effectively. The knowledge economy requires an education system which is flexible, from starting from basic education that provides the foundation for learning, to secondary and tertiary education that can develop core skills, including technical ones, that encourage creative and critical thinking critical for problem- solving and innovation, to a system of life long learning from childhood, to formal schools, training institutions and universities and informal learning( Skills learned from family members or people in the community.) http://www.development/gateway.org
5.5 Knowledge management
Knowledge management is a management theory which emerged in the 1990s. it seek to understand the way it which knowledge is created, used and shared within organizations. Knowledge management comprises a range of practices used by organizations to identify, create, represent and distribute knowledge. The large companies have resources dedicated to knowledge Management, other as a part of information, technology on Human resource Management departments and sometimes reporting directly to the head of the organisation. As effectively managing information is a must in any business, knowledge and information are intertwined; knowledge management is a multi-billion dollar world wide market.
6.0 EMPERICAL REVIEW
6.1 KNOWLEDGE AND POVERT REDUCTION IN TANZANIA
6.2 Current situation
The poverty situation in Tanzania is manifested in a poor quality of social and economic services, less than half of the rural population have access to safe and clean water and large of a part of countryside is inaccessible during the rainy seasons. The other attributes of poverty are exclusion, powerlessness and voiceless ness, especially of women in social and political spheres; children also suffer from limited rights of survey and development
Rural poverty in the country has been halved in the period from 1995 to 2001, at present about 36% of people living in rural areas are classified as power. The program is reflected in the United Nations Development Programmes, Human index for Tanzania which rose from 0.3 in 1990 to 0.4 in 2002. Poverty is still widespread and acute and generally a rural phenomenon. I.e. 85% pf country’s poor people live in rural areas and in agriculture as their main source of income and live hood.
According to the house survey of 2000/03 some of 20% of rural people live in extremely poverty and about 35% are considered poor within the Agriculture sector; food crop producers but both play under cyclical and structural constraints are subjected to Natural disasters such as drought and floods; also lack of market linkages inputs credit and irrigation water
6.3 Knowledge is the key for poverty reduction
Since independence in 1961, the government of Tanzania has had poverty eradicate as its man goal, one of the intervention measures suggested is the introduction and implementation of socials and economic policies which address the issues of poverty both at National and individual level. This many necessitate increase state intervention in education and other social welfare service, the creation and dissemination of knowledge which is useful in our culture context in addressing the key challenges of straitening to reduce pervasive poverty Tanzania.
6.4 Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Poverty Reduction.
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is defined as local or traditional knowledge that is unique to every culture or society, which sometimes influences local decision-making in different areas. In some communities, it is even regarded as a problem solving mechanism to rural communities. IK is recognized as having relevance to the daily life routine of most individuals, economic development, culture preservation and political transformation, which lead to poverty reduction. IK plays part in contributing to poverty eradication among communities in Tanzania. IK is implicit knowledge and thus difficult to systemize, it is embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships and rituals
The indigenous knowledge database is a product of the Tanzania Development Gateway, an initiative that uses Information Technology and the Internet to promote social and economic development within Tanzania. The database has been established to enhance sharing and dissemination of IK information, experiences and practices in Tanzania.
Objectives of this database is to provides a platform/ system where IK is captured, stored and disseminated, Provide a mechanism of sharing this knowledge and also integrate it with modern science and technology to enhance information dissemination , Promote sharing and dissemination of IK information, experience and practices in Tanzania. In realization of IK and its contribution to social and economic development, the database will promote development of IK systems to improve local communities by establishing a mechanism. (Indigenous knowledge gateway Tanzania).
6.5 ICT in Tanzania aid for development
A rural -urban digital divide, Regional aspects of internet use in Tanzania The digital divide is the gap between those with regular; effective accesses to digital, technologies, in particular the Internet, and those without. This article takes a closer look at the digital divide within Tanzania. Based on a survey among Internet café users in rural, semi-urban and central regions of the country, we find that the divide is mainly a question of finding venues with technology to access the Internet. (Admin, November 26, 2007)
6.6 Mwalimu Nyerere Argument on Knowledge.
Education fir self-reliance (1967) Nyerere advocates that education should be given to every individual in a nation so as to transmit accumulated wisdom and knowledge from one generation to another.. In this way the younger generation would be prepared for their future membership of their society, and for their active participation in its maintenance or development.
Also he argued that education is for service. It should aim at producing workers, farmers, technicians, and other categories of workers. Knowledge provided in our schools and institutional should be judged interpreted and put in practices. Thus knowledge should develop individuals an inquiring mind, on ability to learn from others with ability to disseminate that knowledge to younger ones and a basic confidence in their own positions as free and equal members of society, so as` to enable then to judge social issues by themselves.
Education should increase man’s power over himself and his environment. The function of learning is the development of men and mankind. The education should enlighten and show him how and why is should limit his desires, why and how to conquer, shape and protect his environment for posterity.
Lastly Mwalimu argued that the aim of education related to liberate men e.g. the primary purpose of education is liberation of men. Education has to make man more of a human being in the sense that his potentials have to be revealed to him through agency to know himself; It has therefore to enable man to throw off obstacles to freedom which restrict his full physical, political, social and mental development.
The role of a university in developing countries is to contribute, to give ideas, manpower, and services for the furtherance human equality, human dignity and human development. (Education foundations, history of education, 1986).
6.7 National strategies on Poverty reduction
The Government prepared and adopted Development vision in 1999 National strategy in 1997, which spell out a vision for society with object poverty. The National strategy aimed at providing guidance to all stakeholders in identifying, formulating, implementing and evaluating the level of poverty. Also provided a framework to guide poverty by year 2025, based on the following key sectors: health, nutrition, water, agriculture, education and rural roads. The National Strategy has identified aspects of strategic interventions namely:- those creating environment building the capacity for poverty eradication. The vision 2025 is in line with international development goal remains a point of references for current poverty reduction actions
The reduction in the share of population living below the poverty line from around 50% currently to 30% by year 2015 will require significant effort to enhance productivity and increase investment in human capacities requires measures to increase incentives and returns for undertaking such investments and increase public support e. g Primary education and Hearth care structural transformation and intervention of cross cutting issues such as prevention and management of HIV/AIDS
Lastly a long term strategy for agriculture involves sustained macro-economic stability, more effective research and extension, improved infrastructure and developing institutional framework for supporting transformation of agriculture and rural development more broadly.
7.0 POLICIES RELATED
Education and training policies: Recent policy in education sector, technical Education and Training (1996), National Higher Education Policy (1999) and Science and Technology policy (1996) http://w.w.w.tz.online.org As indicated in policy document the role of education sector is to ensure quality, access and equity at all levels on education. Specifically these policies are aiming in improvement of quality education and training, expansion of provision of education and training promotion of science and technology and broadening the base for the financing of education and training. Other policies include the human rights thus all individuals have equal write to access information, education the agencies of knowledge. The important of Information, Communication and Techno lodge can facilitate the knowledge dissemination to the grassroots.
8.0 CONCLUSION
Therefore knowledge is the light; it is power and the key for poverty reduction.
Based on Mwalimu Nyerere augments the need of creation and dissemination of Knowledge from creators to the grassroots it is crucial. The ICT should be used to educate people in the society the strategies and interventions made by the government on poverty reduction, for example the students’ graduates from universes should be expertise to the rural development. Knowledge on improved agricultural methods such as use of fertilisers and primary health care. Our media should be used to educate people on different development areas. Use of radios, television, magazines, telephones etc.
REFERENCES
Achtenberg, J. (2002) Managing Variable. Connection: Research in Behaviour Change.
Chengo.M, (1999) Economic Development, Connection: Enhancing Human Capital, importance of ICT and Globalization for Knowledge sharing
Deiverport, T (1998) Working knowledge, Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
Http://www.med.govt.tz/templates multipage document Knowledge Economy, 2/12/07
Http://www.tanzaniagateway.org Indigenous knowledge gateway sharing and dissemination of ICT information5/12/07
Http://en.wikipedia.or/wiki/knowledge Knowledge Management and importance of Intellectual capital , types of knowledge. 5/12/07
Indigenous Knowledge Gateway, Sharing and dissemination of Indigenous Knowledge http://www.tanzaniagateway.org
Krough, G (2000) Enabling Knowledge. Connection: Oxford University Press. New York.
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN POVERTY REDUCTION
COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM
ICD 533 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICLES OF DEVELOPMENT
JAN 2008 ASSIGNMENT
JOURNAL
SOCIAL CAPITAL
&
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN POVERTY REDUCTION
TUTOR’S NAME: DR SINDA HUSSEN SINDA
STUDENT’S NAME: NEEMA WELLU NSALLU ( ID No 728177).
DSM CLASS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.0 LITERARURE REVIEW--------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1 Empirical literature review-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2 Definition of social capital-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.3 The concept of social concept ---------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.4 What is social capital?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.5 Evaluating social capital----------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.6 Social capital measurement------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.7 Social capital and civil society---------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.8 Social capital and education------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
2.9 Social capital in the third world-------------------------------------------------------------------------8
2.10 Bad social capital-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
2.11 CED on social capital------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
3.0 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW ---------------------------------------------------------------9
3.1 Example of social capital in Tanzania------------------------------------------------------------------9
3.2 The role of social capital in poverty reduction-------------------------------------------------------10
3.3 Prevention and management of HIV/AIDS----------------------------------------------------------10
3.4 Support group of PLWHAs SHIDEPHA +-----------------------------------------------------------11
3.5 Mambo Poa Youth Resource Center – Dodoma, -- Urban-----------------------------------------12
3.6 Changamoto livestock keepers group Kongwa District/ Dodoma---------------------------------12
4.0 POLICY REVIEW---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
5.0 OWN PERSPECTIVES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
6.0 CONCLUSION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
1. AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
2. ARVs – Anti-retrial viral drugs.
3. CED – Community Economic Development.
4. HIV – Human Immune deficiency Syndrome.
5. NGO – Non-Governmental Organizations.
6. PLWHA - People Living With HIV/ AIDS.
7. PRSP – Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper.
8. SACCOS – Savings And Credit Cooperation Services
9. STI – Sexually Transmitted Infections.
10. VCT – Voluntary Counseling and Testing.
SOCIAL CAPITAL
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN POVERTY REDUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper is developed to describe social capital and its role to poverty reduction. Describes the theoretical literature review, empirical review and policies review, lastly there is my discussion and conclusion.
2.0 THEORETICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
Social Capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition
2.1 Definitions
Social Capital defined as the resources available to individuals through their memberships in various community set-ups, and how the social capital affects the lives of people in their community set- up.
Social Capital lends itself to multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. David Halpern (1970) argues that the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. In The forms of capital Pierre Bourdieu (1974) distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital, cultural capital and social capital.
2.2 The Concept of Social Capital
Social Capital is a core concept in business, economics, organizational behavior, political science, and sociology, can be explained by person’s location structure of relationships, Social relationships. Pierre Bourdieu (1974) concept on social capital is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource.
James Coleman (1974) defined social capital functionally as “a variety of entities with two elements in common, they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain action of actors. Within the structure” – that is, Social Capital is anything that facilitates individual, or collective action, generating by networks and relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman’s conception, Social Capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which is put.
According to Robert Putnam,( 1993) Social Capital “refers to the collective value of all ‘social networks’ and the inclinations that arrive from these networks to do things for each other”. According to Putman and his follower, Social Capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. Putnam believes that Social Capital can be measured by the amount of trust and ‘reciprocity’ in a community or between individuals.
2.2 What is Social Capital?
Social Capital, referring to connections within and between social networks, is a care concept in business, economics, organizational behavior, political science, public health, and sociology. Though they are in fact, a variety of inter-related definitions of this term, which has been described as “something of cure all” for the problems of modern society, they tend to share the core idea “those social networks Just as screwdriver (Physical Capital) or collage education (Human Capital) can increase productivity (both individual and collective), so too social contact affect the productivity of individuals and groups. While various aspects of the concept have been approached by all social science fields. James Madison, (The Federalist Papers).
2.3 Evaluating social capital
Edwards and Foley, editors of a special edition of the American Behavioral Scientist on Social Capital, Civic Society and Contemporary Democracy, raised two key issues in a study of Social Capital. First, social capital is `not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. Geographic and Social isolation limit access to this resource. Second, not all social capital is created equally. The value of a specific source of capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society. On top of this, Portes has identified four negative consequences of Social Capital, exclusion of outsiders; excess claims on group members; restrictions on individual freedom; and downward leveling politics. Social capital is often linked to the success of democracy and involvement. . (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital)
2.4 Social capital measurement
There is no widely held consensus on how to measure Social Capital, which is one of its weaknesses. One can usually intuitively sense the Level/amount of Social Capital present in a given relationship (regardless of type or scale), but quantitatively measuring it has proven somewhat complicated. This has resulted in different metrics for different functions. In measuring political social Capital, it is common to take the sum of society’s membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of Capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with lower memberships (such as communities) still add up to be significant. The level of cohesion of a group also affects its Social Capital. However, again, there is no true quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness. It is entirely subjective. How a group relates to the rest of society also affects Social Capital, but in different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group’s Capital in cases where the group is geared towards crime, distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred towards each. (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital)
2.5 Social Capital and Civil Society
Civil society refers the voluntary associations and organizations. According to such authors as Walzer, Alessandrini, Stolle and Rochon, Foley and Edwards, and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. If civil society, then, is taken to be synonymous with the individuals, then the question it seems is not ‘how important is social capital to the production of civil society?’ but ‘how important is civil society to the production of Social Capital?’ The Social Capital depends on an already functioning community.
According to Lyons, Civil society is the space for free association, where people could meet and from groups pursue their enthusiasm, express their values and assist other. The idea that creating social capital (i.e. creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalized from the rewards of the economic system into “the community. According to Onyx (2000), while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary. The resurgence of interest in Social Capital as a remedy for the cause of today’s Social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the arguments of many theorists who believe that social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben Fine and John Harris have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of Social Capital.
An abundance of Social Capital is being almost a necessary condition for liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively rigid and unresponsive political system and high levels of corruption, in the political system and in the region as whole. Formal public institutions require Social Capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little.
2.6 Social capital and education
Coleman and Hoffer (1980) collected quantitative data of 28,000 students in total 1,015 public, Catholic and other private high schools in America from the 7 years period from 1980 to 1987. It was found from this longitudinal research that Social Capital in students’ families and communities attributed to the much lower dropout rates in Catholic schools compared with the higher rates in public and non-Catholic private schools. The results also reveal the positive element brought by Social Capital to the teaching of mathematics and verbal skills in Catholic schools.
Teachman et al further develop the family structure indicator suggested by Coleman. They criticize Coleman, who used only a number of parents present in the family neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as step-parents and different types of single-parent families. They take into account of detailed counting of family structure, not only with two biological parents or step parent families, but also with types of single parent families with each other (mother-parent-child interactions by indicators of how often parents and children discuss school related activities
Putnam (2000) mentioned in his book Bowling Alone Child development is powerfully shaped by social capital” and continued “Presence of Social Capital has been linked to various positive outcomes is the results of parent’s Social Capital in a community. States where there is a high social capital there is a high Education performance. Similarity of these states is that these states, parents were more associated with their children education. When there are more parents participation to their children education and school, teachers have reported these engagements lower levels of students misbehavior, such as bringing weapons to school, engaging physical violence, playing hooky, and being generally apathetic about education.
2.7 Social Capital in the Third World
Many authors suggest that Third World communities lack the Social Capital networks and associations found in Western Developed communities, but this underestimates the nature of Social Capital building in traditional societies. For example many of the potlatch activities in which rather than accumulating wealth, it distributed widely, are better understood as forms of investment in Social Capital. For instance Lea Jellineck, in examining circular migration in the Pondokan and Kampong of Indonesia, shows that the Capital accumulated by those moving from rural areas to urban areas, is extended for celebratory slametan when the migrants returns to there rural village. Whilst convectional economics condemns such practices as a waste of capital, and irrational economic behavior, it can be a form of banking in circumstances where convectional banking and credit facilities are not present. Indeed, as a number of commentators have shown, the rate of return on this investment in Social Capital can be much higher than investment in nay other economic activity, as distributive relationships may establish forms of interpersonal obligations that are permanent and cannot easily be discharged. Many Third World communities have such relationships to varying degrees. In Papua New Guinea, for example, the Moka cycles, whereby which pigs are raised for distribution of pig meat in communal feasts are found widely through the Highlands, and the ability to organize and coordinate such events is a major way in which “bikmen” achieve social status”
2.8 Bad Social Capital
It is also important to remember that Social Capital is not always a good thing. As a groups gather together to create bonding groups can become more radical than if they just stayed to themselves. Without bridging Social Capital, bonding groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society. For example of these types of groups, one needs only to consider bad organizations. But there is no easy treatment of the casual relationships between Social Capitals invested towards more negative ends. An example of the complexities in calling these forms of Social Capital bad is the example of how gangs might develop in places where social capital is lacking, but that they sometimes provide integral functions for the communities they arise in. This might be extrapolated to include the governmental hosting of terrorist groups that serve some positive function in the society regardless of their overtly negative connotations.
2.9 Community Development Economic on Social Capital
CED based thinking example is idea Social Capital, an idea which encompasses community resolve and self reliance as equitable to monetary Capital. The logic behind it is that if a community has a strong sense of collectivity and duty to each other, they will be less dependent on handouts an more apt to find ways in which to address their problems or the commonwealth of their communities. The appeal of CED thinking has allowed people and communities the World over to re-think their conception of development, and in doing so redefine their understanding for economic activity in the process.
Abel Enterprises is a non-profit work co-operative based in Ontario Canada. It has been in existence for over twenty years providing psychiatric patients with opportunities to contribute to the market economy. They specialize in manufacturing custom woodwork products such as bedroom furniture and desks for children with disabilities. This is a typical social enterprise, in spirit and in practice, for it is equipped to contribute positively to the psychiatric members of the community while creating some profits to self sustain.
3.0 EMPIRECAL REVIEW
3.1 The examples of Social Capital in Tanzania,
The Tanzania Prisons can be regarded as Social Enterprise as well. It is well understood that the prison is a place where there are different types of professionals as well as those who do not possess any profession. Every prisoner is involved in a certain activity according to their abilities and strengths. The abilities and skills possessed by the prisoners are being put to good advantage and in a way contributing value for the conventional market and the betterment of prisoners. Prisoners are involved in construction works, carpentry; some work in dispensaries and hospitals, and recently on prisoner graduated and was awarded a bachelor degree in Law. It is believed that his knowledge will be put to good use as well. Regardless the hardships they face as prisoners, they work together, and they encourage each other (Mutual support) for productivity.
3.2 The role of Social Capital in poverty reduction
The Multi- focus approach to poverty alleviation and poverty reduction is central to economic management in Tanzania. The need to integrate poverty concerns and development requires effective coordination and cooperation among all relevant principles, a department to coordinate efforts to society, and people. Combating poverty is a critical element in Country’s development endeavour. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) was developed to address the key challenges toward poverty eradications, improvement of policy environment, enhance productivity and increase investment in both human and physical capital. HIV/AIDS control activity and agriculture growth e.t.c.
3.3 Multi-sect oral approach toward the fight of HIV/AIDS
One of the Tanzania Government strategies in the poverty reduction is the HIV/AIDS management and HIV Prevention. Several programs have been made to fight against epidemic including Multi-sectoral approach whereby the Non-Governmental Organization and Civil societies are fully involved, and hence have built the social capital to fight against the disease. Most of the Programs in Africa offer nutrition support for People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunting that may lead to economic problems. (Hence, it is both a cause and an effect). For example, lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged 4 and under suffer from anemia because of insufficient iron in their diets. The multi-sect oral approach in Tanzania i.e. involvement of all sectors, has facilitated the services to affected and infected people.
The health staff and other community providers assigned to provide the nutritional support which is offered in a context of extreme deprivation, economic hardship, social stigma, endemic malnutrition and food scarcity. Many of the people providing nutrition support are devoted volunteers whom themselves have been personally affected directly or indirectly by the effects of the AIDS epidemic in their communities, sometimes is divergence of this support provided, the PLWHA have decided to form a NGO for network and mutual support, and this increases the Social Capital which increases the efforts of fighting against social stigma, fighting their rights, and increased the access to get support including Nutritional food and access to Ant-retroviral therapy.
3.4 Mambo Poa Youth Resource Center in Dodoma
Disease, specifically diseases of poverty: AIDS, Malaria, and Tuberculosis and others overwhelmingly afflict developing nations, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity.
HIV/AIDS affects Tanzania’s young particularly; young aged 15 to 24 years old. This accounts for 60 percent of new infections, while comprising only 20 percent of the population. Girls are particularly vulnerable for both biological and social reason. At a regional level the HIV/AIDS interventions involves all the community groups including the Adult, both men and women, PLWHA and Youth. The HIV/AIDS/STI preventive education is provided to various groups requires different approaches, methodology or pedagogy. But most of these approaches favor the adult people and leave behind the multitude of young people. The young people in Dodoma Municipality formed a group called Mambo Poa and started a Youth resource center to seek for the HIV/AIDS education, friendly VCT services, recreational services, and also as a group to conduct a road show within and out the Municipality to the rural communities to there peers. The Social Capital built by Dodoma youth attracted many donors to support them with skills, educational materials, recreational instruments and financially.
3.5 Changamoto, livestock keepers association in Kongwa District Dodoma
The Dodoma Regional situated in arid area or semi-desert also play its role to combat poverty rather than agricultural activities, livestock is the main productive activity which contribute 35% of the regional economic, they are several challenges which face the farmers including animal diseases, cattle theft, shortage of water for their cattle e.t.c The livestock keepers forms their cooperation, to network with other central regional farmers to advocate for their crucial needs, to access the Livestock medicine and market for their products, this increases the Social Capital for their problem resolution. Also the organization encourage the Livestock keepers communities to form savings and credit institutions such as saving, and credit societies trusts and work with other small scale farmers communities and develop appropriate credit system such Saving and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) which have contributed a lot to lift the standard of lives in rural areas.
4.0 POLICY REVIEW
The community development policy gives guidance on how communities will be helped to build their capacity to implement their responsibilities. The policy also states clearly the responsibilities of different concerned parties in speeding up community development in the country. The major objective of the Community Development policy is to enable Tanzanians as an individuals or in their families and /or groups or associations to contribute more to the government objectives of self reliance and therefore bring about development at all levels and finally have a remarkable national growth.
Livestock policy aims at promoting the livestock industry so as to increase production and productivity to ensure that the nation achieves a per capita consumption of beef of 4.83 kg per annum by the year 2005 (increase by 39%). This will enhance farmers’ income, production of hides and exports by both live animals and other products. There is the establishment of livestock associations in the pastoral areas to enhance their bargaining and purchasing power in the supply of inputs, organizing the market of products and dissemination of new technology.
The National Policy for Youth development aim to improve the life of youths, men and women by developing them in sectors of economy, culture, politics, up-bringing, education and health. Also to sensitize youths and the society in awareness, promotion and defending youth rights according to the national constitution. To associate departments, institutions and various organizations in implementing youth development programmes with the aim of mitigating economic, social, political and cultural negative effects. To prepare youth physically, mentally, economically, politically and culturally so that they can take over the various responsibilities as good citizens, parents and leaders in a society. This enables youths to participate in the struggle to bring social and national development, the same as the adult.
5.0 OWN PERCEPTIVES
Social Capital is for economic growth; all strategies of poverty reduction toward poverty eradications should also include building social capital in all levels, the examples above show that there is evidence that Social Capital under any of 3 categories, political, economical and social structure, have impact on development outcome i.e. economic growth, equity and poverty alleviation. The organizations, institutions should provide the informal framework to organization information sharing, coordination of activities and collective decision making. The information sharing role of social capital is of key importance for poverty alleviation. The case of PLWHAs Mutual support group is an important example. The groups permit the infected people to overcome stigma, one of their main constraints, to access credit, and ARVs. The same the Livestock keepers who are regarded as poor in our communities if compared with other workers and business people because have limited ability to cope with risk such as animal disease and hence are more vulnerable to income fluctuation. The poor also have limited access to insurance against future calamities as well as market failures. Social Capital does not remove the uncertainty but is an important aspect; it may create mutual knowledge about how agents will respond to different issues. It may also serve as an enforcement mechanism to ensure that their expectations about mutual behavior are in fact realized. This reduces contracting costs.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Therefore Social Capital plays an important part in poverty reduction, cause it is a resource for collective act, so can be built in our communities to join effort, through networking, sharing information for better success toward Poverty eradication.
REFERENCES
1. Grootaert. C; 1998; Social Capital, the missing link. Connection: Sustainable Development Network. Washington, USA.
2 .http://www.worldbank.org/socialdevelopment Social Capital initiatives – World Bank. Working paper
3. http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21natlinfo/countr/tanzania/social htm Connection:-Social Capital and development.
4.http://www.rualpovertyportal.org//English/regions/Africa/tza/index.htm 2/11/2007 Rural Poverty in Tanzania. Connection: Poverty Reduction – Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
5. http://www.Tanzania.go.tz/Sector po/.htm Policies livestock policy, health policy, community development policy
6..http://www.unaids.org/en/Regions-Countries/countries/Tanzania.asp UNAIDS Uniting the World against AIDS. Connection: Tanzania, country analysis.11/21/2007
7.http:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital. Social Capital- wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Connection: social capital and civil society, education, and social capital and the third world,
8. Hughes, J., Wendy Stone. Social Capital, Empirical meaning and measuring validity, Research paper No. 27. Institute of family studies. Australia
9. Otliman H., Living A (2002) Local governance and poverty reduction, Tanzania country paper for AGF
10. Social Aspect of sustainable Development in the United Republic of Tanzania 11/5/ 2007
Connect: Poverty.
11. Woolcock, M & Narayan.D. (200), Social Capital: Implications for development Theory. Research and Policy world bank Research Observer 15(2)
NEEMA WELLU NSALLU
Msc. CED STUDENT
PROGRAM
ICD 533 PRINCIPLES & PRACTICLES OF DEVELOPMENT
JAN 2008 ASSIGNMENT
JOURNAL
SOCIAL CAPITAL
&
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN POVERTY REDUCTION
TUTOR’S NAME: DR SINDA HUSSEN SINDA
STUDENT’S NAME: NEEMA WELLU NSALLU ( ID No 728177).
DSM CLASS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.0 LITERARURE REVIEW--------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.1 Empirical literature review-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2 Definition of social capital-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.3 The concept of social concept ---------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.4 What is social capital?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.5 Evaluating social capital----------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.6 Social capital measurement------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.7 Social capital and civil society---------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.8 Social capital and education------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
2.9 Social capital in the third world-------------------------------------------------------------------------8
2.10 Bad social capital-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
2.11 CED on social capital------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
3.0 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW ---------------------------------------------------------------9
3.1 Example of social capital in Tanzania------------------------------------------------------------------9
3.2 The role of social capital in poverty reduction-------------------------------------------------------10
3.3 Prevention and management of HIV/AIDS----------------------------------------------------------10
3.4 Support group of PLWHAs SHIDEPHA +-----------------------------------------------------------11
3.5 Mambo Poa Youth Resource Center – Dodoma, -- Urban-----------------------------------------12
3.6 Changamoto livestock keepers group Kongwa District/ Dodoma---------------------------------12
4.0 POLICY REVIEW---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
5.0 OWN PERSPECTIVES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
6.0 CONCLUSION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
1. AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
2. ARVs – Anti-retrial viral drugs.
3. CED – Community Economic Development.
4. HIV – Human Immune deficiency Syndrome.
5. NGO – Non-Governmental Organizations.
6. PLWHA - People Living With HIV/ AIDS.
7. PRSP – Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper.
8. SACCOS – Savings And Credit Cooperation Services
9. STI – Sexually Transmitted Infections.
10. VCT – Voluntary Counseling and Testing.
SOCIAL CAPITAL
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN POVERTY REDUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This paper is developed to describe social capital and its role to poverty reduction. Describes the theoretical literature review, empirical review and policies review, lastly there is my discussion and conclusion.
2.0 THEORETICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
Social Capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition
2.1 Definitions
Social Capital defined as the resources available to individuals through their memberships in various community set-ups, and how the social capital affects the lives of people in their community set- up.
Social Capital lends itself to multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. David Halpern (1970) argues that the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. In The forms of capital Pierre Bourdieu (1974) distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital, cultural capital and social capital.
2.2 The Concept of Social Capital
Social Capital is a core concept in business, economics, organizational behavior, political science, and sociology, can be explained by person’s location structure of relationships, Social relationships. Pierre Bourdieu (1974) concept on social capital is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource.
James Coleman (1974) defined social capital functionally as “a variety of entities with two elements in common, they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain action of actors. Within the structure” – that is, Social Capital is anything that facilitates individual, or collective action, generating by networks and relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms. In Coleman’s conception, Social Capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which is put.
According to Robert Putnam,( 1993) Social Capital “refers to the collective value of all ‘social networks’ and the inclinations that arrive from these networks to do things for each other”. According to Putman and his follower, Social Capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. Putnam believes that Social Capital can be measured by the amount of trust and ‘reciprocity’ in a community or between individuals.
2.2 What is Social Capital?
Social Capital, referring to connections within and between social networks, is a care concept in business, economics, organizational behavior, political science, public health, and sociology. Though they are in fact, a variety of inter-related definitions of this term, which has been described as “something of cure all” for the problems of modern society, they tend to share the core idea “those social networks Just as screwdriver (Physical Capital) or collage education (Human Capital) can increase productivity (both individual and collective), so too social contact affect the productivity of individuals and groups. While various aspects of the concept have been approached by all social science fields. James Madison, (The Federalist Papers).
2.3 Evaluating social capital
Edwards and Foley, editors of a special edition of the American Behavioral Scientist on Social Capital, Civic Society and Contemporary Democracy, raised two key issues in a study of Social Capital. First, social capital is `not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. Geographic and Social isolation limit access to this resource. Second, not all social capital is created equally. The value of a specific source of capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society. On top of this, Portes has identified four negative consequences of Social Capital, exclusion of outsiders; excess claims on group members; restrictions on individual freedom; and downward leveling politics. Social capital is often linked to the success of democracy and involvement. . (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital)
2.4 Social capital measurement
There is no widely held consensus on how to measure Social Capital, which is one of its weaknesses. One can usually intuitively sense the Level/amount of Social Capital present in a given relationship (regardless of type or scale), but quantitatively measuring it has proven somewhat complicated. This has resulted in different metrics for different functions. In measuring political social Capital, it is common to take the sum of society’s membership of its groups. Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of Capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with lower memberships (such as communities) still add up to be significant. The level of cohesion of a group also affects its Social Capital. However, again, there is no true quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness. It is entirely subjective. How a group relates to the rest of society also affects Social Capital, but in different manner. Strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group’s Capital in cases where the group is geared towards crime, distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred towards each. (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital)
2.5 Social Capital and Civil Society
Civil society refers the voluntary associations and organizations. According to such authors as Walzer, Alessandrini, Stolle and Rochon, Foley and Edwards, and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. If civil society, then, is taken to be synonymous with the individuals, then the question it seems is not ‘how important is social capital to the production of civil society?’ but ‘how important is civil society to the production of Social Capital?’ The Social Capital depends on an already functioning community.
According to Lyons, Civil society is the space for free association, where people could meet and from groups pursue their enthusiasm, express their values and assist other. The idea that creating social capital (i.e. creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current Australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. The goal is to reintegrate those marginalized from the rewards of the economic system into “the community. According to Onyx (2000), while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary. The resurgence of interest in Social Capital as a remedy for the cause of today’s Social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. However this ignores the arguments of many theorists who believe that social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society. In international development, Ben Fine and John Harris have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of Social Capital.
An abundance of Social Capital is being almost a necessary condition for liberal democracy. A low level of social capital leads to an excessively rigid and unresponsive political system and high levels of corruption, in the political system and in the region as whole. Formal public institutions require Social Capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little.
2.6 Social capital and education
Coleman and Hoffer (1980) collected quantitative data of 28,000 students in total 1,015 public, Catholic and other private high schools in America from the 7 years period from 1980 to 1987. It was found from this longitudinal research that Social Capital in students’ families and communities attributed to the much lower dropout rates in Catholic schools compared with the higher rates in public and non-Catholic private schools. The results also reveal the positive element brought by Social Capital to the teaching of mathematics and verbal skills in Catholic schools.
Teachman et al further develop the family structure indicator suggested by Coleman. They criticize Coleman, who used only a number of parents present in the family neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as step-parents and different types of single-parent families. They take into account of detailed counting of family structure, not only with two biological parents or step parent families, but also with types of single parent families with each other (mother-parent-child interactions by indicators of how often parents and children discuss school related activities
Putnam (2000) mentioned in his book Bowling Alone Child development is powerfully shaped by social capital” and continued “Presence of Social Capital has been linked to various positive outcomes is the results of parent’s Social Capital in a community. States where there is a high social capital there is a high Education performance. Similarity of these states is that these states, parents were more associated with their children education. When there are more parents participation to their children education and school, teachers have reported these engagements lower levels of students misbehavior, such as bringing weapons to school, engaging physical violence, playing hooky, and being generally apathetic about education.
2.7 Social Capital in the Third World
Many authors suggest that Third World communities lack the Social Capital networks and associations found in Western Developed communities, but this underestimates the nature of Social Capital building in traditional societies. For example many of the potlatch activities in which rather than accumulating wealth, it distributed widely, are better understood as forms of investment in Social Capital. For instance Lea Jellineck, in examining circular migration in the Pondokan and Kampong of Indonesia, shows that the Capital accumulated by those moving from rural areas to urban areas, is extended for celebratory slametan when the migrants returns to there rural village. Whilst convectional economics condemns such practices as a waste of capital, and irrational economic behavior, it can be a form of banking in circumstances where convectional banking and credit facilities are not present. Indeed, as a number of commentators have shown, the rate of return on this investment in Social Capital can be much higher than investment in nay other economic activity, as distributive relationships may establish forms of interpersonal obligations that are permanent and cannot easily be discharged. Many Third World communities have such relationships to varying degrees. In Papua New Guinea, for example, the Moka cycles, whereby which pigs are raised for distribution of pig meat in communal feasts are found widely through the Highlands, and the ability to organize and coordinate such events is a major way in which “bikmen” achieve social status”
2.8 Bad Social Capital
It is also important to remember that Social Capital is not always a good thing. As a groups gather together to create bonding groups can become more radical than if they just stayed to themselves. Without bridging Social Capital, bonding groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society. For example of these types of groups, one needs only to consider bad organizations. But there is no easy treatment of the casual relationships between Social Capitals invested towards more negative ends. An example of the complexities in calling these forms of Social Capital bad is the example of how gangs might develop in places where social capital is lacking, but that they sometimes provide integral functions for the communities they arise in. This might be extrapolated to include the governmental hosting of terrorist groups that serve some positive function in the society regardless of their overtly negative connotations.
2.9 Community Development Economic on Social Capital
CED based thinking example is idea Social Capital, an idea which encompasses community resolve and self reliance as equitable to monetary Capital. The logic behind it is that if a community has a strong sense of collectivity and duty to each other, they will be less dependent on handouts an more apt to find ways in which to address their problems or the commonwealth of their communities. The appeal of CED thinking has allowed people and communities the World over to re-think their conception of development, and in doing so redefine their understanding for economic activity in the process.
Abel Enterprises is a non-profit work co-operative based in Ontario Canada. It has been in existence for over twenty years providing psychiatric patients with opportunities to contribute to the market economy. They specialize in manufacturing custom woodwork products such as bedroom furniture and desks for children with disabilities. This is a typical social enterprise, in spirit and in practice, for it is equipped to contribute positively to the psychiatric members of the community while creating some profits to self sustain.
3.0 EMPIRECAL REVIEW
3.1 The examples of Social Capital in Tanzania,
The Tanzania Prisons can be regarded as Social Enterprise as well. It is well understood that the prison is a place where there are different types of professionals as well as those who do not possess any profession. Every prisoner is involved in a certain activity according to their abilities and strengths. The abilities and skills possessed by the prisoners are being put to good advantage and in a way contributing value for the conventional market and the betterment of prisoners. Prisoners are involved in construction works, carpentry; some work in dispensaries and hospitals, and recently on prisoner graduated and was awarded a bachelor degree in Law. It is believed that his knowledge will be put to good use as well. Regardless the hardships they face as prisoners, they work together, and they encourage each other (Mutual support) for productivity.
3.2 The role of Social Capital in poverty reduction
The Multi- focus approach to poverty alleviation and poverty reduction is central to economic management in Tanzania. The need to integrate poverty concerns and development requires effective coordination and cooperation among all relevant principles, a department to coordinate efforts to society, and people. Combating poverty is a critical element in Country’s development endeavour. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) was developed to address the key challenges toward poverty eradications, improvement of policy environment, enhance productivity and increase investment in both human and physical capital. HIV/AIDS control activity and agriculture growth e.t.c.
3.3 Multi-sect oral approach toward the fight of HIV/AIDS
One of the Tanzania Government strategies in the poverty reduction is the HIV/AIDS management and HIV Prevention. Several programs have been made to fight against epidemic including Multi-sectoral approach whereby the Non-Governmental Organization and Civil societies are fully involved, and hence have built the social capital to fight against the disease. Most of the Programs in Africa offer nutrition support for People Living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunting that may lead to economic problems. (Hence, it is both a cause and an effect). For example, lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged 4 and under suffer from anemia because of insufficient iron in their diets. The multi-sect oral approach in Tanzania i.e. involvement of all sectors, has facilitated the services to affected and infected people.
The health staff and other community providers assigned to provide the nutritional support which is offered in a context of extreme deprivation, economic hardship, social stigma, endemic malnutrition and food scarcity. Many of the people providing nutrition support are devoted volunteers whom themselves have been personally affected directly or indirectly by the effects of the AIDS epidemic in their communities, sometimes is divergence of this support provided, the PLWHA have decided to form a NGO for network and mutual support, and this increases the Social Capital which increases the efforts of fighting against social stigma, fighting their rights, and increased the access to get support including Nutritional food and access to Ant-retroviral therapy.
3.4 Mambo Poa Youth Resource Center in Dodoma
Disease, specifically diseases of poverty: AIDS, Malaria, and Tuberculosis and others overwhelmingly afflict developing nations, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity.
HIV/AIDS affects Tanzania’s young particularly; young aged 15 to 24 years old. This accounts for 60 percent of new infections, while comprising only 20 percent of the population. Girls are particularly vulnerable for both biological and social reason. At a regional level the HIV/AIDS interventions involves all the community groups including the Adult, both men and women, PLWHA and Youth. The HIV/AIDS/STI preventive education is provided to various groups requires different approaches, methodology or pedagogy. But most of these approaches favor the adult people and leave behind the multitude of young people. The young people in Dodoma Municipality formed a group called Mambo Poa and started a Youth resource center to seek for the HIV/AIDS education, friendly VCT services, recreational services, and also as a group to conduct a road show within and out the Municipality to the rural communities to there peers. The Social Capital built by Dodoma youth attracted many donors to support them with skills, educational materials, recreational instruments and financially.
3.5 Changamoto, livestock keepers association in Kongwa District Dodoma
The Dodoma Regional situated in arid area or semi-desert also play its role to combat poverty rather than agricultural activities, livestock is the main productive activity which contribute 35% of the regional economic, they are several challenges which face the farmers including animal diseases, cattle theft, shortage of water for their cattle e.t.c The livestock keepers forms their cooperation, to network with other central regional farmers to advocate for their crucial needs, to access the Livestock medicine and market for their products, this increases the Social Capital for their problem resolution. Also the organization encourage the Livestock keepers communities to form savings and credit institutions such as saving, and credit societies trusts and work with other small scale farmers communities and develop appropriate credit system such Saving and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) which have contributed a lot to lift the standard of lives in rural areas.
4.0 POLICY REVIEW
The community development policy gives guidance on how communities will be helped to build their capacity to implement their responsibilities. The policy also states clearly the responsibilities of different concerned parties in speeding up community development in the country. The major objective of the Community Development policy is to enable Tanzanians as an individuals or in their families and /or groups or associations to contribute more to the government objectives of self reliance and therefore bring about development at all levels and finally have a remarkable national growth.
Livestock policy aims at promoting the livestock industry so as to increase production and productivity to ensure that the nation achieves a per capita consumption of beef of 4.83 kg per annum by the year 2005 (increase by 39%). This will enhance farmers’ income, production of hides and exports by both live animals and other products. There is the establishment of livestock associations in the pastoral areas to enhance their bargaining and purchasing power in the supply of inputs, organizing the market of products and dissemination of new technology.
The National Policy for Youth development aim to improve the life of youths, men and women by developing them in sectors of economy, culture, politics, up-bringing, education and health. Also to sensitize youths and the society in awareness, promotion and defending youth rights according to the national constitution. To associate departments, institutions and various organizations in implementing youth development programmes with the aim of mitigating economic, social, political and cultural negative effects. To prepare youth physically, mentally, economically, politically and culturally so that they can take over the various responsibilities as good citizens, parents and leaders in a society. This enables youths to participate in the struggle to bring social and national development, the same as the adult.
5.0 OWN PERCEPTIVES
Social Capital is for economic growth; all strategies of poverty reduction toward poverty eradications should also include building social capital in all levels, the examples above show that there is evidence that Social Capital under any of 3 categories, political, economical and social structure, have impact on development outcome i.e. economic growth, equity and poverty alleviation. The organizations, institutions should provide the informal framework to organization information sharing, coordination of activities and collective decision making. The information sharing role of social capital is of key importance for poverty alleviation. The case of PLWHAs Mutual support group is an important example. The groups permit the infected people to overcome stigma, one of their main constraints, to access credit, and ARVs. The same the Livestock keepers who are regarded as poor in our communities if compared with other workers and business people because have limited ability to cope with risk such as animal disease and hence are more vulnerable to income fluctuation. The poor also have limited access to insurance against future calamities as well as market failures. Social Capital does not remove the uncertainty but is an important aspect; it may create mutual knowledge about how agents will respond to different issues. It may also serve as an enforcement mechanism to ensure that their expectations about mutual behavior are in fact realized. This reduces contracting costs.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Therefore Social Capital plays an important part in poverty reduction, cause it is a resource for collective act, so can be built in our communities to join effort, through networking, sharing information for better success toward Poverty eradication.
REFERENCES
1. Grootaert. C; 1998; Social Capital, the missing link. Connection: Sustainable Development Network. Washington, USA.
2 .http://www.worldbank.org/socialdevelopment Social Capital initiatives – World Bank. Working paper
3. http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21natlinfo/countr/tanzania/social htm Connection:-Social Capital and development.
4.http://www.rualpovertyportal.org//English/regions/Africa/tza/index.htm 2/11/2007 Rural Poverty in Tanzania. Connection: Poverty Reduction – Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
5. http://www.Tanzania.go.tz/Sector po/.htm Policies livestock policy, health policy, community development policy
6..http://www.unaids.org/en/Regions-Countries/countries/Tanzania.asp UNAIDS Uniting the World against AIDS. Connection: Tanzania, country analysis.11/21/2007
7.http:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/social-capital. Social Capital- wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Connection: social capital and civil society, education, and social capital and the third world,
8. Hughes, J., Wendy Stone. Social Capital, Empirical meaning and measuring validity, Research paper No. 27. Institute of family studies. Australia
9. Otliman H., Living A (2002) Local governance and poverty reduction, Tanzania country paper for AGF
10. Social Aspect of sustainable Development in the United Republic of Tanzania 11/5/ 2007
Connect: Poverty.
11. Woolcock, M & Narayan.D. (200), Social Capital: Implications for development Theory. Research and Policy world bank Research Observer 15(2)
NEEMA WELLU NSALLU
Msc. CED STUDENT
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