SOCIAL GENDER CONSTRUCTION & ITS IMPLICATION

I am Neema Wellu Nsallu, CED student 2007-2007. I would like to share about Social Gender construction and its implication on our socities. This article consist two parts of discussion, the analysis of social construction of gender inequality in household, community, policy levels and religious organization and it is about the implication of gender construction in the community, work place and institutions
Refers to the socially given roles, activities, responsibilities, needs and Characteristics connected to being male (Masculine) or male (Feminine) in a society at a given time. (The terms introduced by Money, 1955). Gender refers to the cultural construction of male and female identities. The differences are often cast as binary opposites for example: Male dominance versus female submissiveness or the male’s sphere of public activities versus the female’s private sphere within the home (Creighton and Omari C.K 1995).
Gender roles are used to signify norms and stereotypes determine how women and men, girls and boys are perceived and how they are expected to act (Lean Lim, 1996). Gender roles signify all those things that a person says or does to disclose him as having the status of sex. Gender roles are socially constructed and are constantly changing as society changes. While Gender differences: are reflected in roles, responsibilities, access to resources, constraints, opportunities, needs, perceptions, views etc. held by both women and men. Thus gender is not a synonym for women, but considers women and men and their interdependent relationship (Moses.C, 1993)

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER
Gender differences probably arose with tools and permanent settlements. The shift to agricultural production led to reduction in women’s economic roles and rise of patriarchy. For example: the dominant sex model in the west until recently was one sex model 9 women were inferior with men) about 1800, Anglo- European reconceptualized how they imagined sex differences, treating men and women not superior and inferior versions of the same creature but as polar opposites.
In pre-modern times, women and men were more alike then now. The modern sense of women being feminine as being weak, soft emotional and in need of male protection, was not common. While changes occurred with a new class of celibate men gained control of the Catholic Church and educational institutions. This led to the exclusion of women (and married men) from position of leadership, the defining of women as sexual temptresses.
In modern Anglo- Europeans notions of feminity and masculinity arose with the separation of capitalism moving workers out of their homes. A women place is in the home: feminity became associated with the holistic and the emotional social relations of the private sphere which was new construction. Its man word ‘masculinity’ means being objective, rational, non-emotional, and able to play a specific role without getting too wrapped up personally.

Ideology of Gender Determination/Construction
Gender is socially constructed attributes of being male or female; women and men are treated unequally on the bases of the fact of their sex. Underlying the different assumption of the treatment of women and men is a whole series of women observed as well as constructed. (Sex differences or differences between male and female are often stated as the basis for unequal treatment.) Gender differences represent men and women the basis differentiation continues to be traced back to biological difference; also cultural and social values relating to relations between men and women. Historically and cultural variation found in the constructing of gender relations point to the fact that these are challenges.

The Analysis of the Ideology of the Sex Difference:-
The discrimination is socially constructed and is based on social or norms, or patterns that become routines over a period of time. These patterns are so socially legitimized that they become reproduced with economy because indicated ways in which identify and roles are intertwined. Four main institutions in society combine their practice and reinforce the ideology of the social construction of gender. These institutions are: the family or household, the market or organization, the community and religious organism

Social gender construction at Family level
A social rule or norm is that men are breadwinners and women are home makers or that men are leaders and decision makers and women are followers and implementers of decisions. In accordance to the rules starting from the household, women are expected to be obedient, submissive and fulfilled house hold responsibilities. .Non of the institution provides resources to them- economic or social, which were seen from the perspective of the social construction of Gender. These has the serious consequence to the women Denial of chances to the women for education by the family leads to fewer options is the workplace or the fact that women are solely responsible for childcare in the family lead to disapproval of working women. Women who seek market place substitute for childcare. They are also then denied participation in community decisions and in turn have limited rights in household decisions as they are seen as not having enough exposure or the grounds that it is not their roles.
Traditionally a women is part of man’s properties is still strongly existing in our communities. For example a women is not supposed to initiate the sexual act whether or not she desires it, she should learn to restrain herself. However she should not refuse to have sex with her partner if he request for it. She could be generalized as a prostitute. Another example: Female genital mutilation practice of female genital mutilation involves the removal or deformation of sensitive female genitalia, the exercise was conducted purposely to satisfy a man (husband) to control the woman’s desire regardless the pains, death and other consequences even death which could face a woman and girl.

Triple role framework concept for women still exists in our societies, thus a woman reproductive role refers as a domestic task and child rearing responsibilities required to guarantee the maintenance of human resources. Reproductive work is crucial for human survival, yet it is seldom considered real work. It is unpaid, labor intensive and almost always the responsive of women and girls.
The Productive role: of good and services for consumption and trade (sale). It includes market production (cash) and subsistence production, employment labor and independent enterprises. Women’s productive work is often less visible and less valued than men’s.

2.2.4 Social gender construction at community level:
Activities in the public sphere of the community, such participating in a agriculture activities or women’s group, attending religious meeting. It involves considerable volunteer time and is important for community organization and development.


BEING A MOTHER IN AFRICA MEANS JUGGLING A CAREER CHILDREARING AND HOUSEHOLD RESPONSIBILITY

Socio-cultural role/ community work activities
Norms and rules have material consequences for issues of women and men’s relative to and claims over different categories of resources. The normative underlining of sex difference led to differences in the way responsibilities are allocated, resources are distributed, and rights are granted. Asymmetries or inequalities grow to represent conflicts of interest. So the challenges to the way social rules are constructed represent challenges to the entire organization of society.
“How women negotiate these changes’ will vary depending on the ability or capacity of a woman to risk changes to the way her life has been lived. Three categories of coping strategies that women commonly engage in can be identified: Acceptance, Adaptation, (Involving negotiation and bargaining) and resistance.
For example, the case dowry, when the commodification of women is accepted and dowry provided, women are often burned to death. While social change may come at a price, it is often for more sustainable and transformatory in the long- terms if it represents a more from dependence to autonomy.
The various social institutions build their discriminatory practices on the same social rule. The public and private are connected. At community level these discrimination and continuing inequalities is observed in political participation or the right to mobility, all put a women in a disadvantaged position with resultant loss of right and power.
For example the allocation of responsibilities, most of the ten-cell leaders or village chairmen are men but a village secretary it must be a woman. Also the resource and rights on the basis of social norms disadvantages women materially.
Therefore, Community Level plays an important role in social construction in gender equality. These can be seen in community level through differences in power, gender orders social relationships in such a way that some individuals have power do others; in every society, the roles women and men assume accord women fewer opportunities and privileges. Gender affects both power to and power on. Power refers ability to act and often requires assess to social resources such as education, money land and time. For example in our communities women usually have less power to inherit land, ect. Women are less likely to develop individual Characteristic such as higher levels education that that can give them assess to better paying jobs or political office and enhance their power.

Gender Construction in Institutional level
The social of differences between men and women in the basis on which rules/ resources/ responsibilities/ power and rights are distributed or allocated between men and women in society resulting in discrimination. The above gender relations starts from the family level extend to high institutions and positions. They are fundamentally interlinked. Institutions do not function as isolated unit of society but instead draw on the rules structured within the household and society The assumptions that the household, community, market institutions are all independent of each other mask the content to which gender differences are constructed and reproduced.
Therefore at the higher institution level gender inequality can be constructed though discrimination, oppression and marginalization on the basis of sex in allocation and distribution access to and control over resources, services and opportunities. These services are education, health, economics participation, power sharing, decision making, human rights, mass media, environmental, development and other strategies of poverty.

Religious Institutions
The overview of religions that favors men and women with examples.
Work place: discrimination of women in workplaces such as types of works and position. Miss-interpretation of Koran or Bible contributed a lot in gender inequality construction, women are not allowed to be priest in many denomination. Based on the sex, religious appoints women in specific activities. Religious. doctrines and leaders references to Bibles and Koran on the submissive nature of women derty their opportunities in hold positions of leadership and decision making in churches and mosque decisions made usually discriminate against women.

Work Place and gender inequality.
Men (individuals with power over) are able to asset their wishes and goals even in a face of opposition from others. Women gradually have less power over then men in the work place because women hold far fewer positions in governing others; have little impact on decision- making or public policies.

Political System:
Gender inequality may also be structured perpetuated by the economy the political system; and other social institutions. Civil law and religion customs in various countries for example, may resist a women’s ability to own property, work in certain occupations or serve as a religious leader. Gender is called a Cultural Construct. Gender is organized differently in different societies. Accordingly, the expectations for women and men vary throughout the world.

GENDER POLICIES
Girls should involve the overview of policies that discriminate women and Social construction of gender inequality. Tanzania has gender aware policies that acknowledge the development anchors both women and men, the constrained in different, and often unequal ways, and that they may consequently have sometimes conflicting needs, interests and priorities. There are policies which related to women and child development e.g. Gender and development policy which it’s overall objective is to promote equality and equal participation of men and women in economic, cultural and political matters. Also focuses on fairer opportunities for women and men to access to education, child care, employment and decision making. Women development policy gives guidelines on how communities would be helped to build their implement their responsibilities. The policy also states clearly the responsibilities of different concerned parties in speeding up community development in country. The major objective of the community development policy is to enable Tanzania as an individual or in their families and/or group or associations to contribute more to the government objectives of self reliance and therefore bring about development of all levels and finally a remarkable nation growth.
Child development policy: The development of a child is related to his or her intellectual, moral and spiritual growth. In order for a child to grow well he or she needs to be cared for, given or brought up in accordance with the norms of the community. The policy objectives are to educate, direct and provide guidance to the community on the basic rights of child and child survival protection and development, to enable the community to understand the source of problems facing children and provide directions on the up bringing of children in difficult substances. Also to clarify the role of responsibilities of children so that children may become good citizens. Lastly to ensure that there are laws this can be used to deal with child abuse. Other related policies are education and training policy, health, youth’s policies agricultures and employment policies.

Gender equality can be attained, means equal visibility, empowerment and participation of both sexes in all spheres of public and private life. It has now been empirically proved that gender equality is a development imperative. If development means the improved well being of people and the process by which this well being is achieved, then gender equality becomes an important variable of development. The main reason is that development can only be sustainable where material benefits are fairly distributed especially to the most in need the disadvantaged and most vulnerable women fail in one or both of its categories. Studies have shown that in societies where there is gender equality development indicators have better records. The empowerment of women through education the means to attaining gender equality There is need to educate and train people of all levels that priority on women and girls.. The family as the first gender construction Institution should change the practice of giving priority to boy child education rather than a girl child also. The community members should be sensitized and trained on bad culture and traditions which discriminate girls and women. Institutions such as work place also should base on the Gender and women development policies to address gender issue in their organizational set-up. E.g. Gender mainstreaming of gender in the organization projects.

PART TWO:
Question 2

THE IMPLICATION OF GENDER INEQUALITY TO GENDER
ISSUES IN COMMUNITIES/ WORKPLACE AND ORGANIZATION

INTRODUCTION:
Social construction in gender inequality has great implication in gender issues in our communities/ societies. Mosha (1992) noted that in most developing countries, there are problems of a stereotypical model of society, where men are conceived to be dominant on the intensity of work, decision and access and control of resources. Men control most resources and decision making in them FAO/WHO (1992) states that: access and control of resources may be greater if the women earn the income; although this is not always the case.
Despite the woman’s important roles as producers and household managers, they are other marginalized when it comes to allocation of resources and decision making. They lack direct access to resources such as land, capital and credit, and information, which is the end reduce their production (FAO/WHO Danilceliman and Davidson, 1988, 1991, FAO, 1996, Mngodo et al, 1996). The general sub- ordination of women in Tanzania society is reflected in the lack of access and the control of resources in all levels from household, community, workplace and institutional or organizational level (Johnson, 1986, URT and UNICEF, 1990, FAO/WHO, 1992).

Traditional conceptions of access to resources it most communities were determined by the practical system of the made domination, in these communities, inheritance of resources such as land or assets such as houses and trees passed to male hands, except women although the overall overseer of those resources was the material uncle. These are few causes compared to patrilineal societies. In many matrilineal societies, women have right to land and relatively more economic independence and autonomy over its proceeds particularly to food crops (Mwaipopo, 1994).
Historical analysis of the development of the social relationship in Tanzania suggest colonial economic policies and commoditization of indigenous economics (particularly with the introduction of export crops) capitalized by existing patriandial system of dominance in facility in direct rule at the local level. At the household level, it meant establishing male dominance and ownership of properly relations as being the head of the household level (Mascarenhas and Mbilinyi, 1963). There are unequal possibilities of access to resources between men and women (Beker 1995) women being the main African farmers/ food producers compared to men, access to and control of resources is the main constraint to the effective performance of several activities. This is because decision making and control over the resources is mainly by the men, (Makundi 1996).

Accessibility of Land, Labor, Time and Agriculture inputs:
Under the law, women in Tanzania have equitable access to land, life stock and productive assets but in practice such access is more often through males. For example in agriculture production women suffer exploitation under patriarchal relations of production perpetuating the control the land and women labor time by men. Even when married women have access to land though husbands, this is an interest of relatively limited scope to they (women) have no power to sell the land (mum 1988, ministry of agriculture, 1992).
Generally the agriculture labor force mainly women, if deprived from land access leads to serious constraint on improving women’s productivity on the access of household women’s important foods, which women produce (day 1988) in Tanzania, the land mostly inherited by men. Also, the critical inputs for agricultural production trend to the provided through males. They also remain dormant in the question of the control over the proceeds from the sale of crops which all adults and children produced (Wagao, 1991).

Accessibility of new Technology:
Women disadvantages access to resources compared to men impinges on their ability on their ability to respond to new economic opportunities. They often do not have enough cash hire or by new technology such as plough, ovens, manure or chemicals fertilizer for agriculture. Their productivity is often low and are sometimes left out in development planning for lack of new technological input (Mwaipopo, 1994) women are still working with traditional an d rudimentary tools (such as hand hoe and in food processing) while the new devices and equipment have been benefiting men (Lamming, 1983). The introduction of modern or improving production. Despite such good infection done little to improve welfare of women (Lamming 1983; Lewis, 1984, Trenchard, 1987, Rwambali, 1991).

Accessibility to Decision Making Power:
Decision making in Tanzania depends on tradition in patrilineal societies, where women are accustomed to subordination, they play very little, role in decision making bodies in village governments. Many crucial decisions, which affect women and made by men with little or no input from women (URT and UNICEF, 1990).

Accessibility to education:
Wiley (1984) revealed that despite Tanzania women providing over 609 of all required labor, agriculture and development-related information has largely bypassed them. Women lack information and opportunities for larger training. Even agricultural extension programs have traditional concentrated more on educating males and hence women still largely depending on their husbands for access to such information (Ratherty, 1996). Whatever extension education that exists in the village, it passed on to men, not women who are busy working on the fields or preparing the food or collecting fire wood or water (CARE international in Tanzania). Women’s source of information remained to be husbands and neighbors rather then extension agents (Shayo, 1991, Warburg, 1992).
Gender inequality and its implication in Tanzania
The Strategic Country Gender Assessment (SCGA) summarizes relevant gender issues in Tanzania to support dialogue with government and civil society and to inform the world Bank’s work program. The SCGA aims to support the government of Tanzania (GOT) to integrate gender issues systematically into the ongoing revision and update of the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS II) and to support bank in preparing 2004/05 Country Assistance Strategy (CAS).
Basic Gender indicators for Tanzania:-
The United Republic of Tanzania being a member of the United Nations is a party to the global platform for action; adopted at the Beijing 4th UN world conference 1995. The GPA lists 12 critical areas of concern identified as obstacles to the advancement of women. The 12 are Poverty, Education, Health, Violence, Armed and other conflicts, Economic participation, Power sharing and decision mating, The national and the international machineries, Human rights, Mass media, Environment and development and girl child. Implication of gender constructions in Gender issues in our communities, work place and organization. In presenting its commitment to the implementation of the GPA the Tanzania Government noted that Gender inequality was a prevalent and cited a number of factors that contributed to this state of affairs: Social cultural norms, Values, Traditional practices and customs, Unequal access to decision – making processes, legal inequalities and poverty.

Social Cultural Constraints:-
Constrains on girl education: School is sometimes seen as an alternating force that undermines cultural values example traditional attitudes towards marriage view investment in girl education as watering another man’s garden any benefits will go to another family after marriage. So parents not invest a lot to a girl in education.
Socialization patterns assume that girls should be docile and passive while boys are expected to be aggressive, adventurous and cut going. This is to the disadvantage of girls when they have to share facilities and equipment with boys. Girls are also expected to suppress their brilliance or be subjected to redicule.
The social status of women in a society and negative attitudes to women in a society and negative attitudes to women as subordinates influence decision making in girls education example traditional practices e.g. early marriage and initiation rites interfere more with the education of girls then that of boys.

School Constraints:-
The inadequacy of facilities in schools hinders access particularly in rural areas and arid and semi-arid land. Gender bias pervades the curriculum-teachers syllabi, textbooks and delivery systems. Education is of low quality and lacks relevance and practical application for example it is difficult form a girl child to relate the Reproductive Health education offered in a classroom in its life as a woman, the teaching methods techniques and procedures enables putting in practice to prevent affection such as Sexual Transmitted Infections STIs and HIV/AIDS. A hostile learning environment is characterized by the lack of sanitary facilities the exploitation of girls labor and sexual harassment and school management practices discriminate against girls. Female role models are lacking.
GENDER POLICIES
Tanzania has gender aware policies that acknowledge the development anchors both women and men, the constrained in different, and often unequal ways, and that they may consequently have sometimes conflicting needs, interests and priorities..
There is also some constrains on gender policies for example: Education policies exclude pregnant school girls and adolescent mothers, policies do not articulate goals for achieving gender equity, policies support or do not prevent inequitable practices in resource allocation and policies for monitoring gender in education are inadequate. Girls should involve the overview of policies that discriminate women and Social construction of gender inequality.
There are policies which related to women and child development e.g. Gender and development policy which it’s overall objective is to promote equality and equal participation of men and women in economic, cultural and political matters. Also focuses on fairer opportunities for women and men to access to education, child care, employment and decision making.
7.1 Women development policy:
Gives guidelines on how communities would be helped to build their implement their responsibilities. The policy also states clearly the responsibilities of different concerned parties in speeding up community development in country.
The major objective of the community development policy is to enable Tanzania as an individual or in their families and/or group or associations to contribute more to the government objectives of self reliance and therefore bring about development of all levels and finally a remarkable nation growth.
7.2 Child development policy:
The development of a child is related to his or her intellectual, moral and spiritual growth. In order for a child to grow well he or she needs to be cared for, given or brought up in accordance with the norms of the community. The policy objectives are to educate, direct and provide guidance to the community on the basic rights of child and child survival protection and development, to enable the community to understand the source of problems facing children and provide directions on the up bringing of children in difficult substances. Also to clarify the role of responsibilities of children so that children may become good citizens. Lastly to ensure that there are laws this can be used to deal with child abuse. Other related policies are education and training policy, health, youth’s policies agricultures and employment policies.

HOW GENDER EQUALITY CAN BE ATTAINED
The Government of Tanzania has so far done well in this. It has done so in Parliament as well as in local government authorities.afflimmative Action has somehow worked as a catalyst to bring women into leadership and decision making positions. It is a well known fact that a good number of MPs have been doing well; women have been and can be good leaders as men.
Even if women are educated and that alone will not suffice to ensure that gender inequality is done away with. That alone is not enough in ensure that they have equal access to leadership positions or representation bodies like Parliament councils or village authorities. There is a need to educate and train society in general as well as other authorities that are key in deciding what affirmative action should be taken.
Empowerment of women in all levels, the development of Nation depend on both men and women and therefore measures which emphasize the subornation of group over the other do not promote development. Although some men refuse to admit that varied forms of subordination of women exist in Tanzania various practices both traditional and contemporary, attest to fact.
At appreciation of girls as capable human being boys will go a big who when given the opportunity could perform just as well as boys will go a long way to reduce the incidence of non preference it out society.
Work positions at workplace.
There is the need to appreciate the full value of girls in the home and to eliminate discrimination in school and choice of courses. There is still the nation that women are better as secretaries, nurses, teachers and other female domain sectors. Boys and men are encouraged into much more mind probing areas such as medicine, engineering and sciences (male domain sectors).
It is important for all to challenge the myths that promote ideologies which continued to portray men as thinkers, decision-makers, directors and leading politicians and to promote the concept of women as home-makers, preservers of traditions and cultures and submissive human beings. This is exactly what gender sensitive men and women do to ensure equity and development.

Early marriages
Early marriages, s well as forced marriages, should all be things of the past. Girls, as well as boys need knowledge and skills to control sexual desire, so as to eliminate complete adolescent/ teenage pregnancies and school dropouts. The provision of appropriate motivation and requisite resources to girls in particular will go a long way to help them climb up the leader to be great like the boys. Marriage and job opportunities should not be obstacles in the way of girls in developing their potentials to the maximum and taking the rightful places in society.

Women empowerment
Although the empowerment of women and improvement of their status are important end in her selves they are essential for development. The motive is to achieve equality and equity between men and women and enable women realize their full potential. They will then be involved in decision making and policy formulation which have for many years been for men.
It is thus necessary that men play a major role in promoting and ensuring gender equality in our society. This is particularly important so that men who should understand the women responsibility and consider as the productive work and contribute in family and national economy, their sexual and reproductive behavior will be compelled to be responsible and take up their social and family roles. It is important to avoid female stereotyping and more so in education and career choices. Both goys and girls should have equal access to education, which is gender sensitive and emphasizes equity.

Education as tool of empowerment
Education is an important tool for improving the status of people and to empowering them. Once appropriate skills have been acquired women will engage in profitable venture to enhance to enhance their socio- economic status. Similarly, when mothers obtain support in terms of sufficient schools systems and care service for their young children, they will have time and peace of mind to contribute effectively towards nation building.

Domestic/ house works
There is the need to give ample recognition to the work of women in their homes and for their families. It should be possible for women to own land in Tanzania and have access to credits without undue hindrances. Policy makers should have the moral courage to implement laws that will promote the rights of girls and women. It should also be possible to have a high self esteem so that they would not be intimidated by anyone.

Men role for women empowerment.
Men’s support for women’s empowerment is essential; men hold the majority of positions of power in societies throughout the world. Too often, the struggle for women’s empowerment is viewed as one for women to wage along. Men must understand that gains for women benefit all of the society.

CONCLUSION
To conclude therefore; the empowerment of women will not only improve their status, but will also provide them with reproductive freedom, from which all other freedoms will flow. Women will then be able to effectively contribute o the total of development of the nation. They ill lead quality lives not only for themselves but also for their families, communities, organizations and the whole county.

NEEMA WELLU NSALLU
MSc. CED STUDENT 2007- 2009